Power spectral density of subsonic jet noise

The scaling of the power scaling density (PSD) of the far field noise for subsonic, unheated, axisymmetric jets has been examined based on data obtained from the literature as well as from new experiments. It has been demonstrated that the PSD scales as the Strouhal number (St_D) alone for most locations, except at shalloow angles (θ<30°) where the best scaling results with the Helmholtz number times the Doppler factor, H_D(1?M_c cos θ). In contrast to the common assumption, scaling with St_D times the Doppler factor only degraded the collapse of the data. Also, a “source convection Mach number”, M_c = 0·5 M, rather than the commonly used value of 0·67 M, yielded the best collapse, M_c = 0·5 M agreeing with the recent measurement of jet large-scale structure convection velocity. At θ = 90°, the amplitude of the PSD varies as U^6·5, which agrees with the observed U^7·5 variation of the overall intensity; a similar power law assumed at θ ～- 30° yields an exponent 8·5 for the PSD. Contrary to claims in the literature, the PSD amplitude was not observed to vary sharply about any critical Reynolds number. For shallow angles, the scaling on H_D (1 ? M_c cos θ) also contrasts simple H_D scaling previously observed on the basis of one-third octave spectra.     

An experimental study of jet noise part I: Turbulent mixing noise

The characteristics, both spectral and directivity, of turbulent mixing noise in the far field from subsonic and fully-expanded supersonic jet flows have been studied experimentally over an extensive envelope of jet operating conditions (jet exit velocity and temperature). The measurements were conducted in an anechoic room which provides a free-field environment. The results are presented in a systematic manner, and the observed trends and dependencies are discussed in detail. In particular, the changes in detailed jet noise features with varying velocity and exhaust temperature are assessed independently. Empirical prediction schemes or comparisons with recent theoretical investigations are not attempted here. However, the isothermal jet noise results are compared with those predicted by the freely-convecting quadrupole theories (that is, in the absence of any mean flow shrouding effects). The discrepancies between this model and the measurements, many of which have been recently shown to occur due to the presence of mean velocity and temperature gradients surrounding the sources, are obtained accurately over all jet operating conditions of interest.     

An experimental study of jet noise part II: Shock associated noise

The characteristics of the sound field of shock-containing under-expanded jet flows are studied by measuring the noise from a convergent nozzle operated over an extensive envelope of supercritical jet operating conditions. The measurements were conducted in an anechoic facility. They are complementary to the turbulent mixing noise experiments (described in Part I) for subsonic and fully-expanded (shock-free) supersonic jets. The overall results from shock-containing jets are compared directly with the corresponding results from shock-free jets, and the effects of nozzle pressure ratio and jet exhaust temperature on broadband shock-associated noise are assessed independently. For a supersonic jet, the regimes of jet operating conditions, observer angles, and frequencies over which the sound field is dominated by shock-associated noise are identified. Finally, the spectral results are compared in a preliminary manner with the spectra predicted by an existing theoretical model, and good agreement is obtained in most cases.     

Jittering wave-packet models for subsonic jet noise

Three simplified wave-packet models of the coherent structures in subsonic jets are presented. The models comprise convected wave-packets with time-dependent amplitudes and spatial extents. The dependence of the radiated sound on the temporal variations of the amplitude and spatial extent of the modulations are studied separately in the first two model problems, being considered together in the third. Analytical expressions for the radiated sound pressure are obtained for the first and third models.Results show that temporally localised changes in the wave-packet can lead to radiation patterns which are directional and which comprise high-amplitude bursts; such intermittency is observed in subsonic jets at the end of the potential core, and so the models may help explain the higher noise levels and intermittent character of the sound radiated to low emission angles for subsonic jets. By means of an efficiency metric, relating the radiated acoustic power to the fluctuation energy of the source, we show that the source becomes more powerful as its temporal localisation is increased. This result extends that of Sandham et al. (Journal of Sound and Vibration 294(1) (2006) 355–361) who found similar behaviour for an infinitely extended wavy-wall.The pertinence of the model is assessed using two sets of data for a Mach 0.9 jet. One corresponds to a direct numerical simulation (DNS) of a Reynolds number 3600 turbulent jet and the other to a large eddy simulation (LES) of a Reynolds number 4×10⁵ jet. Both time-averaged and time-dependent amplitudes and spatial extents are extracted from the velocity field of the numerical data. Computing the sound field generated by the wave-packet models we find for both simulations that while the wave-packet with a time-averaged envelope shows discrepancies of more than an order of magnitude with the sound field, when the wave-packet ‘jitters’ in a way similar to the intermittency displayed by the simulations, we obtain agreement to within 1.5 dB at low axial angles. This shows that the ‘jitter’ of the wave-packet is a salient source feature, and one which should be modelled explicitly.     

An experimental study of transmission,reflection and scattering of sound in a free jet flight simulation facility and comparison with theory

When a free jet (or open jet) is used as a wind tunnel to simulate the effects of flight on model noise sources, it is necessary to calibrate out the effects of the free jet shear layer on the transmitted sound, since the shear layer is absent in the real flight case. In this paper, a theoretical calibration procedure for this purpose is first summarized; following this, the results of an experimental program, designed to test the validity of the various components of the calibration procedure, are described. The experiments are conducted by using a point sound source located at various axial positions within the free jet potential core. By using broadband excitation and cross-correlation methods, the angle changes associated with ray paths across the shear layer are first established. Measurements are then made simultaneously inside and outside the free jet along the proper ray paths to determine the amplitude changes across the shear layer. It is shown that both the angle and amplitude changes can be predicted accurately by theory. It is also found that internal reflection at the shear layer is significant only for large ray angles in the forward quadrant where total internal reflection occurs. Finally, the effects of sound absorption and scattering by the shear layer turbulence are also examined experimentally.     

A prediction method for the effects of flight on subsonic jet noise

The noise of a single-stream circular jet and that of a coaxial jet with coplanar nozzles of 2·5 area ratio have been measured under simulated flight conditions in the RAE 24 ft wind-tunnel. The majority of tests were conducted with the single-stream jet and primary section of the coaxial jet at a nominal temperature of 880 K. The data have been used to quantify the effect of jet temperature and were combined with measurements from an earlier test series to establish a prediction method for the effect of flight on the noise of single-stream subsonic jets. This method is based on jet noise theory modified by experimentally derived constants. For coaxial jets it is concluded that the noise reductions, which are independent of the secondary stream velocity, are predicted to an acceptable degree by the method suggested for unheated single-stream jets. The prediction methods are suitable for both OASPL's and spectra.     

An experimental investigation of the noise produced by air jet impingement on flat plates

The sound power level produced by an air jet impinging upon a flat solid boundary is investigated. Measurements are recorded for nozzle diameters and exit velocities in the ranges $\text{0·75 in < D < 1·5}$ in and $\text{270 ft/s <}\text{U}\text{?}\text{< 700 ft/s}$. The effect of varying the nozzle to plate spacing is investigated for plates normal to and inclined to the jet axis.At low velocities and large nozzle diameters the sound power level was found to increase continuously as the nozzle to plate spacing decreased, the maximum increase being 7 dB above that of the free jet. Under certain conditions, usually small nozzle diameter and high velocities, a maximum in sound power level was observed in the nozzle to plate spacing range, increases of 27 dB above that of the free jet levels being recorded and a distinct tonal character being detected.The reasons for this phenomenon cannot be fully explained, but it is likely that this can be avoided by inclining the plate to the jet axis.     

An experimental study of airfoil instability tonal noise with trailing edge serrations

This paper presents an experimental study of the effect of trailing edge serrations on airfoil instability noise. Detailed aeroacoustic measurements are presented of the noise radiated by an NACA-0012 airfoil with trailing edge serrations in a low to moderate speed flow under acoustical free field conditions. The existence of a separated boundary layer near the trailing edge of the airfoil at an angle of attack of 4.2 degree has been experimentally identified by a surface mounted hot-film arrays technique. Hot-wire results have shown that the saw-tooth surface can trigger a bypass transition and prevent the boundary layer from becoming separated. Without the separated boundary layer to act as an amplifier for the incoming Tollmien–Schlichting waves, the intensity and spectral characteristic of the radiated tonal noise can be affected depending upon the serration geometry. Particle Imaging Velocimetry (PIV) measurements of the airfoil wakes for a straight and serrated trailing edge are also reported in this paper. These measurements show that localized normal-component velocity fluctuations that are present in a small region of the wake from the laminar airfoil become weakened once serrations are introduced. Owing to the above unique characteristics of the serrated trailing edges, we are able to further investigate the mechanisms of airfoil instability tonal noise with special emphasis on the assessment of the wake and non-wake based aeroacoustic feedback models. It has been shown that the instability tonal noise generated at an angle of attack below approximately one degree could involve several complex mechanisms. On the other hand, the non-wake based aeroacoustic feedback mechanism alone is sufficient to predict all discrete tone frequencies accurately when the airfoil is at a moderate angle of attack.     

中压气源的亚/跨音速射流噪声试验台设计*

在全消声室配套射流噪声试验台是开展射流噪声机理和测量方法研究的重要基础。该文研究了中压气源亚/跨音速射流噪声试验台设计,包括设计指标分析、系统软硬件组成、调试以及达到的效果等。结果表明,采用两级调压的方式可以较好地满足射流噪声研究所需的流量和压力需求,同时通过合理的流道设计,控制精度和流场品质均达到较高要求。与国际主流结果对比表明,该试验台测得的射流噪声信号具有极低的干扰噪声水平。     

AS350B2直升机飞行噪声的试验研究

中国航空研究院和德国宇航院合作开展直升机噪声研究,选择一架AS350B2直升机在哈尔滨平房机场进行了噪声测量。介绍了这次飞行试验的设备和试验方法,列出了全部十个试验飞行状态的暴露噪声级,并对试验直升机起飞爬升、水平飞行和下滑飞行时的噪声信号进行了频谱分析及小波分析。结果表明:试验直升机在起飞爬升和下滑飞行时的噪声水平较高,起飞爬升时噪声主要来自尾桨,下滑飞行时噪声主要来自旋翼的桨涡干扰,而且在直升机以中等飞行速度和大约6°的下滑角飞行时最为严重,并且桨涡干扰噪声指向前行桨叶一侧。     

An experimental study of the merging probability of double buoyancy-controlled jet flame

This article presents an experimental investigation on the merging probability of buoyancy-controlled jet flames. Two rectangular jet nozzles with different aspect ratios and heat release rates were studied in the open space. The nozzles of the same area with dimensions of 1.5 × 24, 3 × 12, and 6 × 6 mm were used in this article. It is found that the merging probability increases with the heat release rate and decreases with the space between these two nozzles. A model to predict the merging probability has been developed, which is proportional to a dimensionless parameter linearly within a certain scope.     

An experimental study of some parameters in lightscattering theory

Experiments have been made to determine the parameters appearing in Rozenberg's formulas for scattered radiation. It is found that the photometric parameters are related to the illumination conditions and to the parameters of small volumes. The results are compared with theoretical ones for certain particular cases.     

Direct computation and aeroacoustic modelling of a subsonic axisymmetric jet

A numerical algorithm for acoustic noise predictions based on solving Lilley's third order wave equation in the time-space domain is developed for a subsonic axisymmetric jet. The sound field is simulated simultaneously with the source field calculation, which is based on a direct solution of the compressible Navier-Stokes equations. The computational domain includes both the nearfield and a portion of the acoustic farfield. In the simulation, the detailed sound source structure is provided by the nearfield direct numerical simulation (DNS), while the sound field is obtained from both the DNS and the numerical solution to the non-linear Lilley's equation. The source terms of Lilley's equation are used to identify the apparent sound source locations in the idealized axisymmetric low-Reynolds number jet. The sound field is mainly discussed in terms of instantaneous pressure fluctuations, frequency spectra, acoustic intensity and directivity. A good agreement is found between the predictions from the axisymmetric Lilley's equation and the DNS results for the sound field. Limitations and perspectives of the simulation are also discussed.     

An experimental study of reducing narrowband noise of a slat using chevrons

A new concept of reducing the noise of a slat by applying a chevron form to the bottom edge is experimentally verified. The results of parametric studies are presented, which have been carried out on a small-scale model of a part of the wing (a scale of 1: 18) with deflected high-lift devices (the slat and the flap) in the landing configuration. As a result of acoustic measurements, a decrease (up to 4.5 dB) in narrowband noise for some chevron geometries is observed in comparison to a usual slat. The value of the decrease is a complex function of frequency, the wing and slat geometry, and the flow characteristics.     

射流冲击泡沫金属强化电子器件冷却的实验研究

实验研究射流冲击泡沫金属的强化传热在电子器件冷却中的作用,分析热流密度、传热面与喷射气流温度差、喷射速度和喷嘴距泡沫金属上表面的高度等因素对传热特性的影响。在泡沫金属材质为铜,孔隙率为0.96,喷嘴宽度为0.5cm的情况下,喷嘴距泡沫金属上表面高度越低和喷射速度越大,泡沫金属的传热效果越明显,冷却效果越显著,并对实验数据,进行最小二乘法拟合,得到相应的拟合方程式。该文的分析结果,可为射流冲击泡沫金属强化传热技术的应用提供一定指导和借鉴。     

脉动喷注噪声与稳态喷注噪声的关系

在假设气流脉动基本不影响湍流性质的基础上,求得了脉动喷注噪声的声压级公式(90°方向,1m远)。稳态喷注噪声的声压级,相当于脉动频率为零的特例,从而将脉动喷注噪声和稳态喷注噪声统一了起来,实验结果与理论符合。