Selective solid-phase extraction of bisphenol A using molecularly imprinted polymers and its application to biological and environmental samples

Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) were prepared using bisphenol A (BPA) as a template by precipitation polymerization. The polymer that had the highest binding selectivity and ability was used as solid-phase extraction (SPE) sorbents for direct extraction of BPA from different biological and environmental samples (human serum, pig urine, tap water and shrimp). The extraction protocol was optimized and the optimum conditions were as follows: conditioning with 5 mL methanol–acetic acid (3:1), 5 mL methanol, 5 mL acetonitrile and 5 mL water, respectively, loading with 5 mL aqueous samples, washing with 1 mL acetonitrile, and eluting with 3 mL methanol. MIPs can selectively recognize, effectively trap and preconcentrate BPA over a concentration range of 2–20 μM. Recoveries ranged from 94.03 to 105.3 %, with a relative standard deviation lower than 7.9 %. Under the optimal condition, molecularly imprinted SPE recoveries of spiked human serum, pig urine, tap water and shrimp were 65.80, 82.32, 76.00 and 75.97 %, respectively, when aqueous samples were applied directly. Compared with C18 SPE, a better baseline, better high-performance liquid chromatography separation efficiency and higher recoveries were achieved after molecularly imprinted SPE.      

Forensic analysis of dyed textile fibers

A rapid, specific, and sensitive method has been developed using molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) as solid-phase extraction sorbents for extraction of trace tetracycline antibiotics (TCs) in foodstuffs. MIPs were prepared by precipitation polymerization using tetracycline as the template. Under the optimal condition, the imprinting factors for MIPs were 4.1 (oxytetracycline), 7.0 (tetracycline), 7.4 (chlortetracycline), 7.7 (doxycycline), respectively. Furthermore, the performance of MIPs as solid-phase extraction sorbents was evaluated and high extraction efficiency of molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction (MISPE) procedure was demonstrated. Compared with commercial sorbents, MISPE gave a better cleanup efficiency than C18 cartridge and a higher recovery than Oasis HLB cartridge. Finally, the method of liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry coupled with molecular-imprinted solid-phase extraction was validated in real samples including lobster, duck, honey, and egg. The spiked recoveries of TCs ranged from 94.51% to 103.0%. The limits of detection were in the range of 0.1–0.3 μg kg⁻¹. Chromatograms obtained by direct injection of the spiked egg extracts (5 × 10^-3 mmol L⁻¹) and purification with MISPE     

Development of a selective molecularly imprinted polymer-based solid-phase extraction for indomethacin from water samples

A selective molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction (MISPE) for indomethacin (IDM) from water samples was developed. Using IDM as template molecule, acrylamide (AM) or methacrylic acid (MAA) as functional monomer, ethylene dimethacrylate (EDMA) as crosslinker, and bulk or suspension polymerization as the synthetic method, three molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) were synthesized and characterized with a rebinding experiment. It was found that the MIP of AM-EDMA produced by bulk polymerization showed the highest binding capacity for IDM, and so it was chosen for subsequent experiments, such as those testing the selectivity and recognition binding sites. Scatchard analysis revealed that at least two kinds of binding sites formed in the MIP, with the dissociation constants of 7.8 μmol L⁻¹ and 127.2 μmol L⁻¹, respectively. Besides IDM, three structurally related compounds — acemetacin, oxaprozin and ibuprofen — were employed for selectivity tests. It was observed that the MIP exhibited the highest selective rebinding to IDM. Accordingly, the MIP was used as a solid-phase extraction sorbent for the extraction and enrichment of IDM in water samples. The extraction conditions of the MISPE column for IDM were optimized to be: chloroform or water as loading solvent, chloroform with 20% acetonitrile as washing solution, and methanol as eluting solvent. Water samples with or without spiking were extracted by the MISPE column and analyzed by HPLC. No detectable IDM was observed in tap water and the content of IDM in a river water sample was found to be 1.8 ng mL⁻¹. The extraction efficiencies of the MISPE column for IDM in spiked tap and river water were acceptable (87.2% and 83.5%, respectively), demonstrating the feasibility of the prepared MIP for IDM extraction. Figure Molecularly imprinted polymer-based solid-phase extraction for indomethacin     

Selective solid-phase extraction of tebuconazole in biological and environmental samples using molecularly imprinted polymers

Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) were prepared by precipitation polymerization using tebuconazole (TBZ) as a template. Frontal chromatography and selectivity experiments were used to determine the binding capabilities and binding specificities of different MIPs. The polymer that had the highest binding selectivity and capability was used as the solid-phase extraction (SPE) sorbent for the direct extraction of TBZ from different biological and environmental samples (cabbage, pannage, shrimp, orange juice and tap water). The extraction protocol was optimized and the optimum conditions were: conditioning with 5 mL methanol:acetic acid (9:1), 5 mL methanol and 5 mL water respectively, loading with 5 mL aqueous samples, washing with 1.2 mL acetonitrile (ACN):phosphate buffer (5:5, pH3), and eluting with 3 mL methanol. The MIPs were able to selectively recognize, effectively trap and preconcentrate TBZ over a concentration range of 0.5–15 μmol/L. The intraday and interday RSDs were less than 9.7% and 8.6%, respectively. The limit of quantification was 0.1 μmol/L. Under optimum conditions, the MISPE recoveries of spiked cabbage, pannage, shrimp, orange juice and tap water were 62.3%, 75.8%, 71.6%, 89% and 93.9%, respectively. MISPE gave better HPLC separation efficiencies and higher recoveries than C18 SPE and strong cation exchange (SCX) SPE. Figure HPLC analysis of spiked pannage after MISPE (A) and after C18 SPE (B). HQ (1), E3 (2), p-NP (3), FTF (4), TBZ (5), PNZ (6), HXZ (7) Electronic supplementary material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at and is accessible for authorized users.     

Chromatographic characterization of molecularly imprinted polymers

Recent efforts in the investigation of chromatographic characterization of molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) have focused mainly on the nature of heterogeneous binding sites. More data on the thermodynamics than on the kinetic features of MIP columns have been published. The present article addresses the sources of peak broadening and tailing, which are the main drawbacks often associated with imprinted polymers in chromatography for practical applications. With use of the theory of nonlinear chromatography, the peak properties of a MIP column, including the retention and peak broadening and tailing, can be well interpreted. Efforts to improve chromatographic efficiency using MIPs prepared by approaches different from the conventional method, including covalent imprinting and the format of uniformly sized spherical microbeads, are reviewed and discussed. This review leads to the conclusion that nonlinear chromatography theory is useful for characterizing chromatographic features of MIP columns, since a MIP is essentially an affinity-based chromatographic stationary phase. We expect more theoretical and experimental studies on the kinetic aspects of MIP columns, especially the factors influencing the apparent rate constant, as well as the analysis of the influences of mobile-phase composition on the chromatographic performance. In addition to revealing the affinity interaction by molecular recognition, slow nonspecific interactions which may be inherited from the imperfect imprinting and may be involved in the rebinding of the template to MIPs also need to be characterized. Figure The peak broadening and tailing associated often with molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) in column chromatography for practical applications can be well characterized by the theory of nonlinear chromatography.     

Molecular recognition of endocrine disruptors by synthetic and natural 17β-estradiol receptors: a comparative study

A β-estradiol receptor binding mimic was synthesised using molecular imprinting. Bulk polymers and spherical polymer nanoparticles based on methacrylic acid and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate as the functional monomer and crosslinker, respectively, were prepared in acetonitrile. The selectivity was evaluated by radioligand binding assays. The imprinted polymers were very specific to β-estradiol since the control polymers bound virtually none of the radioligand. The bulk polymer was then employed to screen endocrine disrupting chemicals. Structurally related steroids like α-estradiol, estrone and ethynylestradiol showed, respectively, 14.0, 5.0 and 0.7% of relative binding to the β-estradiol polymer, whereas most unrelated chemicals did not bind at all. These results are compared to those obtained with a bioassay using stably transfected yeast cells in culture bearing the human estrogen receptor. The receptor was activated by several estrogen-like chemicals and to a lesser extent by some structurally related chemicals. Figure A molecularly imprinted polymer that was a synthetic receptor for beta-estradiol was used for the screening of endocrine disrupting chemicals that are structurally related or unrelated to beta-estradiol. The results were compared with the recognition of the compounds by the biological estrogen receptor expressed in yeast cells. Related steroids like alpha-estradiol, estrone and ethynylestradiol showed significant binding to the beta-estradiol imprinted polymer, whereas most unrelated chemicals did not bind. The biological receptor was activated by several estrogen-like chemicals, and to a lesser extent by some structurally related chemicals     

A new molecularly imprinted polymer for selective extraction of cotinine from urine samples by solid-phase extraction

Cotinine, the main metabolite of nicotine in human body, is widely used as a biomarker for assessment of direct or passive exposure to tobacco smoke. A method for molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction (MISPE) of cotinine from human urine has been investigated. The molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) with good selectivity and affinity for cotinine was synthesized using cotinine as the template molecule, methacrylic acid as the functional monomer, and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate as the cross-linker. The imprinted polymer was evaluated for use as a SPE sorbent, in tests with aqueous standards, by comparing recovery data obtained using the imprinted form of the polymer and a non-imprinted form (NIP). Extraction from the aqueous solutions resulted in more than 80% recovery. A range of linearity for cotinine between 0.05 and 5 μg mL⁻¹ was obtained by loading 1 mL blank urine samples spiked with cotinine at different concentrations in acetate buffer of pH 9.0, and by using double basic washing and acidic elution. The intra-day coefficient of variation (CV) was below 7% and inter-day CV was below 10%. This investigation has provided a reliable MISPE–HPLC method for determination of cotinine in human urine from both active smokers and passive smokers. Figure     

Chemosensors in environmental monitoring: challenges in ruggedness and selectivity

Environmental analysis is a potential key application for chemical sensors owing to their inherent ability to detect analytes on-line and in real time in distributed systems. Operating a chemosensor in a natural environment poses substantial challenges in terms of ruggedness, long-term stability and calibration. This article highlights current trends of achieving both the necessary selectivity and ruggedness: one way is deploying sensor arrays consisting of robust broadband sensors and extracting information via chemometrics. If using only a single sensor is desired, molecularly imprinted polymers offer a straightforward way for designing artificial recognition materials. Molecularly imprinted polymers can be utilized in real-life environments, such as water and air, aiming at detecting analytes ranging from small molecules to entire cells. Figure       

分子印迹固相萃取-高效液相色谱法测定猪肉中红霉素残留

采用沉淀聚合法,以红霉素（erythromycin,ERY）为模板,甲基丙烯酸（methacrylic acid,MAA）为功能单体,乙二醇二甲基丙烯酸酯（ethyleneglycoldimethacrylate,EGDMA）为交联剂,甲醇/乙腈（1:4,v/v）为致孔剂制备了ERY分子印迹聚合物（molecularly imprinted polymers,MIPs）。通过扫描电镜、平衡吸附实验等对制备的印迹和非印迹聚合物进行表征和测定,结果表明所制备的MIPs对ERY具有特异性吸附作用。Scatchard分析证明MIPs对ERY的吸附存在两类不同结合位点,最大表观结合量（Q_max）和平衡解离常数（K_d）分别为Q_max1=45.24 mg/g,K_d1=0.028 g/L; Q_max2=87.53 mg/g,K_d2=0.20 g/L。以制备的MIPs为吸附剂的分子印迹固相萃取柱,结合高效液相色谱法能够快速检测猪肉样品中的ERY残留,线性范围为0.5~50 mg/L（r²=0.9994）,检出限（S/N=3）为0.2 mg/kg。猪肉样品中不同添加水平下ERY的加标回收率为95.2%~104.2%,相对标准偏差（RSD）小于5%。该方法选择性好,灵敏、可靠,可用于猪肉等复杂食品样本中ERY残留的检测。     

Molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction for the determination of fenitrothion in tomatoes

Organophosphorus insecticides are widely employed in agriculture, and residues of them can remain after harvesting or storage. Pesticide residue control is an important task for ensuring food safety. Common chromatographic methods used in the determination of pesticide residues in food require clean-up and concentration steps prior to quantitation. While solid-phase extraction has been widely employed for this purpose, there is a need to improve selectivity. Due to their inherent biomimetic recognition systems, molecularly imprinted polymers (MIP) allow selectivity to be enhanced while keeping the costs of analysis low. In this work, a MIP that was designed to enable the selective extraction of fenitrothion (FNT) from tomatoes was synthesized using a noncovalent imprinting approach. The polymer was prepared using methacrylic acid as functional monomer and ethyleneglycol dimethacrylate as crosslinking monomer in dichloromethane (a porogenic solvent). The polymer was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and nitrogen sorption porosimetry. The pore structure and the surface area were evaluated using the BET adsorption method. To characterize the batch rebinding behavior of the MIP, the adsorption isotherm was measured, allowing the total number of binding sites, the average binding affinity and the heterogeneity index to be established. A voltammetric method of quantifying FNT during the molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction (MISPE) studies was developed. The polymer was placed in extraction cartridges which were then used to clean up and concentrate FNT in tomato samples prior to high-performance liquid chromatographic quantitation. The material presented a medium extraction efficiency of 59% (for analyses performed with three different cartridges on three days and a fortification level of 5.0 μg g⁻¹) and selectivity when used in the preparation of tomato samples, and presented the advantage that the polymer could be reused several times after regeneration. Figure       

Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for Solid Phase Extraction

The combination of molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) and solid phase extraction (SPE) is reviewed. MIPs, which have high selectivity and affinity for a predetermined molecule (template), have been used as sorbents for SPE to selectively isolate analytes from biological, pharmaceutical, and environmental samples. Solid phase extraction with molecularly imprinted polymers (MIP–SPE) is a promising technique which allows specific analytes to be selectively extracted from complex matrices. This survey summarizes the characteristics, development and application of MIP–SPE in recent years. Existed problems and the future direction of MIP–SPE are also discussed.     

A catalytically active molecularly imprinted polymer that mimics peroxidase based on hemin: application to the determination of<Emphasis Type="Italic"> p</Emphasis>-aminophenol

Despite the increasing number of applications of molecularly imprinted polymers (MIP) in analytical chemistry, the synthesis of polymers with hemin introduced as the catalytic center to mimic the active site of peroxidase remains as a challenge. In the current work, a new type of molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) was synthesized with 4-aminophenol (4-APh) as the template and two monomers: hemin, which acts as the catalytic center, and methacrylic acid (MAA), which is used to build the active sites. This work shows that MIP successfully mimics peroxidase. For this purpose, a flow injection analysis system coupled to an amperometric detector was investigated through multivariate analysis. The determination of 4-APh was not affected by the equimolar presence of structurally similar phenol compounds, including catechol, 4-chloro-3-methylphenol, 2-aminophenol, guaiachol, chloroguaiachol and 2-cresol, thus highlighting the good performance of the imprinted polymer. Under the optimized experimental conditions, an analytical curve covering a wide linear response range from 0.8 up to 500 μmol L⁻¹ (r > 0.999) was obtained, and the method gave satisfactory precisions (n = 8), as evaluated via the relative standard deviation (RSD), of 4.1 and 3.2% for solutions of 4-APh of 50 and 500 μmol L⁻¹, respectively. Recoveries of 96–111% from water samples (tap water and river water) spiked with 4-APh were achieved, thus illustrating the accuracy of the proposed system. Figure Schematic presentation of the synthesis of the MIP     

Study on an on-line molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction coupled to high-performance liquid chromatography for separation and determination of trace estrone in environment

Estrone is one of the important potential endocrine-disrupting compounds, and the sensitive and reliable analytical methods for the determination of estrone are required for the assurance of human health. In this paper, using estrone as template molecule, 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane as function monomer, and tetraethoxysilicane as cross-linker, a highly selective molecularly imprinted microsphere was synthesized by surface molecular imprinting technique combined with a sol–gel process. The imprinted material was characterized by the Fourier transform infrared and static adsorption experiments, and the results showed that it exhibited good recognition and selective ability for estrone. A novel method for separation and determination of trace estrone in environmental sample was developed using on-line molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction coupled to high-performance liquid chromatography. With a sample loading flow rate of 2.6 mL min⁻¹ for a 9.6-min extraction, the enrichment factor obtained by the slopes of the linear portion in comparison with the direct injection of 10 μL standard sample solution was 1,045. The detection limit (S/N = 3) was 5.7 ng L⁻¹, and the relative standard deviations for nine replicate extractions of 5.0 μg L⁻¹ estrone was less than 10.0%. This method was evaluated for quantitative determination of estrone in well and lake water samples spiked at two levels (0.5 and 1.0 μg L⁻¹) with recoveries ranging from 86% to 95%.      

Molecularly imprinted sol–gel nanoparticles for mass-sensitive engine oil degradation sensing

Titanate sol–gel layers imprinted with midchain carbonic acids have proven highly useful for detecting engine oil degradation processes owing to selective incorporation of oxidised base oil components. Synthesising the material from TiCl₄ in CCl₄ and precipitating with water leads to imprinted TiO₂ nanoparticles with a diameter of 200–300 nm. Replacing the water by a 1 M ammonium hydroxide solution reduces the average particle size to 50–100 nm with retention of the interaction capabilities. Experiments with the latter solution revealed that the 100-nm particles take up substantially more analyte, indicating a size-dependent phenomenon. As the number of interaction sites within each material is the same, this cannot be a consequence of thermodynamics but must be one of accessibility. The sensor characteristic of water-precipitated particles towards engine oil degradation products shows substantially increased sensitivity and dynamic range compared with the corresponding thin films. Coating quartz crystal microbalances with such nanoparticle materials leads to engine oil degradation sensors owing to incorporation of acidic base oil oxidation products. Interaction studies over a large range of layer thicknesses revealed that both the absolute signal and the steepness of the correlation between the sensor signal and the layer height is 2 times higher for the particles. Figure Generation of molecularly imprinted sol–gel nanoparticles     

LC-MS-based procedures for monitoring of toxic organophosphorus compounds and verification of pesticide and nerve agent poisoning

Organophosphorus compounds (OPCs) are used worldwide as, e.g., flame retardants, plasticizers, and pesticides and remaining stockpiles of OPC nerve agents are present in military arsenals. These OPCs exhibit acute and potential chronic toxicity to man, the environment, and biota thus emphasizing the need for efficient analytical procedures to monitor potential risk to health. Therefore, this review discusses LC-MS-based procedures for OPC detection, addressing sample preparation, separation, ionization, and detection in comprehensive detail. For sample preparation conventional liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) and diverse solid-phase extraction (SPE) procedures are still used most frequently. Nevertheless, during the last three years a number of sophisticated novel methods have been introduced. Solid-phase microextraction (SPME), stir-bar-sorptive extraction (SBSE), membrane-assisted solvent extraction (MASE), and specifically designed molecularly imprinted polymers (MIP) exhibit high potential for frequent use in the future. Additional emphasis in this review is dedicated to the quite young history and current progress in ionization and MS detection of OPCs. The number of relevant published LC-MS reports has tripled in the last five years. This is especially due to the proliferating use of electrospray ionization (ESI), nowadays an indispensable and reliable tool for LC-MS coupling. LC-MS is becoming an appropriate complementary or replacement method for the more traditional GC-MS methods, and not only for non-volatile, hydrophilic, and ionic OPCs. The last section of this review covers recent approaches for verification of OPC poisoning. LC-MS-MS detection of phosphylated peptides generated from inhibited circulating serum butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) by valuable proteomics techniques enables proof of intoxication on the molecular level. Therefore, this review gives a comprehensive overview on the status quo of LC-MS-based OPC analysis in respect of both technical progress and relevant applications.      

Molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction and flow-injection chemiluminescence for trace analysis of 2,4-dichlorophenol in water samples

Highly sensitive flow-injection chemiluminescence (CL) combined with molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction (MISPE) has been used for determination of 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP) in water samples. The molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) for 2,4-DCP was prepared by non-covalent molecular imprinting methods, using 4-vinylpyridine (4-VP) and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA) as the monomer and cross-linker, respectively. 2,4-DCP could be selectively adsorbed by the MIP and the adsorbed 2,4-DCP was determined by its enhancing effect on the weak chemiluminescence reaction between potassium permanganate and luminol. The enhanced CL intensity was linear in the range from 1 × 10⁻⁷ to 2 × 10⁻⁵g mL⁻¹. The LOD (S/N = 3) was 1.8 × 10⁻⁸g mL⁻¹, and the relative standard deviation (RSD) was 3.0% (n = 11) for 1.4 × 10⁻⁶g mL⁻¹. The proposed method had been successfully applied to the determination of 2,4-DCP in river water. Figure Effect of 4-VP content on the ultraviolet spectrum of 2,4-DCP in chloroform     

Advantages of LC–MS–MS compared to LC–MS for the determination of nitrofuran residues in honey

In the framework of developing analyses for exogenous contaminants in food matrices such as honey, we have compared data obtained by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC–MS) to those provided by high-performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS–MS). Initial results obtained with LC–MS showed that the technique lacked selectivity, which is why the method was validated by LC–MS–MS. This method involves a solid-phase extraction (SPE) of nitrofuran metabolites and nitrofuran parent drugs, a derivatization by 2-nitrobenzaldehyde for 17 h, and finally a clean-up by SPE. The data obtained show that the limits of detection varied between 0.2 and 0.6 μg kg⁻¹ for the metabolites and between 1 and 2 μg kg⁻¹ for nitrofuran parent drugs. The method was applied to different flower honeys. The results showed that nitrofurans (used as antibiotics) are consistently present in this matrix, the predominant compound being furazolidone. Figure Working bees     

A new ICP–TOFMS. Measurement and readout of mass spectra with 30 μs time resolution, applied to in-torch LA–ICP–MS

In-torch LA–ICP–MS was implemented into an in-house-built ICP–TOFMS system. The fast data acquisition capabilities of the new configuration allowed simultaneous multi-element measurement and readout of in-torch LA–ICP–MS signals with 30 μs time resolution. The measurements confirmed previously observed fine structures of in-torch generated signals and provided new insights in the dynamic processes in the plasma on a microsecond time scale. The new setup is described in detail and first figures of merit are given. Figure Time dependent multi element signal after laser ablation in the torch of an ICP-TOFMS instrument     

Evaluation of solid-phase microextraction conditions for the determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in aquatic species using gas chromatography

This paper describes a headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) procedure coupled to gas chromatography with mass spectrometric detection (GC–MS) for the determination of eight PAHs in aquatic species. The influence of various parameters on the PAH extraction efficiency was carefully examined. At 75 °C and for an extraction time of 60 min, a polydimethylsiloxane–divinylbenzene (PDMS/DVB) fiber coating was found to be most suitable. Under the optimized conditions, detection limits ranged from 8 to 450 pg g⁻¹, depending on the compound and the sample matrix. The repeatability varied between 7 and 15% (RSD). Accuracy was tested using the NIST SRM 1974b reference material. The method was successfully applied to different samples, and the studied PAHs were detected in several of the samples. Figure Headspace SPME sampling followed by GC–MS facilitates routine monitoring of PAHs in aquatic species     

Role of molecularly imprinted polymers for selective determination of environmental pollutants--a review

The molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) are synthetic polymers possessing specific cavities designed for a target molecule. By a mechanism of molecular recognition, the MIPs are used as selective tools for the development of various analytical techniques such as liquid chromatography, capillary electrochromatography, solid-phase extraction (SPE), binding assays and biosensors. This review describes the application of MIPs to the determination of environmental pollutants in these different analytical approaches with a special emphasis on their potential as selective SPE sorbent for the selective extraction of target analytes from complex matrices.