Laser safety: The user's problems and requirements for the solutions

The findings of an interview programme carried out with a representative sample of the UK laser community in order to establish their problems and requirements with regard to laser safety is reported. The sample comprised laser manufacturers, laser users and inspectors of the UK Health and Safety Executive (HSE). The results indicated that 80% of interviewees had experienced problems in using the current UK Laser Safety Standards. The usefulness of these Standards is reduced when the broader laser user community is considered. Analysis of user requirements highlighted the importance of laser application-orientated laser safety material and training. Some areas of laser safety were identified as requiring further investigation.     

Survey and evaluation of the education and training needs in laser safety

This paper presents the results from a survey undertaken to assess levels of safety awareness and to identify the education and training needs of the laser community in the UK. Results show that 75% of appointed Laser Safety Officers in the UK have a responsibility for teaching laser safety; disturbingly only 54% of these people have received some form of laser safety training themselves. Opinions regarding current training provision show that theoretical issues are well covered but that calculations and practical laser safety issues are topics not well taught. Results from questions regarding topics that should be included on training courses are presented. The survey results show a reliance upon administrative controls and personal protective equipment within the laser community. These findings are compounded by the conclusion that current training provision places an over-emphasis upon theoretical laser safety issues at the expense of practical safety advice and information. The need for a more flexible and targeted approach to laser safety training is demonstrated.     

Evolving issues in laser safety

The approach to laser safety has come a long way since the 1960s when the first guidelines were issued by defense research organizations in the US and the UK, and then by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. Although the search for 'eye-safe' numbers continues in a few laboratories, this work is almost exclusively centered on deriving retinal thresholds for ultra-short (sub-nanosecond) lasers. Setting limits in this temporal region has been difficult, since there are conflicting data sets and there is a limited amount of data to extrapolate to other spectral regions. In the standards arena, the concentrated efforts have been in terms of product classification and attempts to resolve the eternal question of 'how safe is safe?'. Recent efforts to revise safety standards have not always taken into account the historical rationale for the maximum permissible exposures and forget that safety factors were already factored into the limits and further safety factors are quite unnecessary. Finally, the study of accidents raises the question of whether our approach to eye protection and enclosures are adequate and whether separate standards and guidance is needed for different applications.     

Laser safety primer outline for industrial/medical users

Laser safety standards are detailed technical documents arising from the complexity of the different mechanisms, depending on the parameters of the laser beam, by which lasers interact with living tissue. As a result, their interpretation by non-expert laser users, who are concerned about safety issues, can cause many difficulties. Based on experience in advising industrial and medical laser users, we have developed a primer which (i) provides step-by-step guidance in the interpretation and use of the laser safety standards, and (ii) explains how to calculate the laser irradiance (on the retina or the skin) to which the user may be subjected in typical situations. A computer program has also been developed which, through a series of questions and answers, guides the user through the calculation of the maximum permissible exposure level and the nominal optical hazard distance for the application of interest. The overall package should be particularly useful to laser safety officers and users of lasers for research applications, as an independent check on safety calculations. It also provides a useful complement to the many worked examples in the laser safety standards.     

Proposals for a standard for the safe use of light-emitting diodes, laser diodes, and optical fibre transmission systems

A new safety standard for light emitting diodes, laser diodes and fibre optical transmission systems is needed because of the difficulties in applying existing standards to these products. New proposals, generated by a BSI working group, include a new classification system which takes into account the inherent beam divergence of most of these products, and the need to classify at different locations within an extended optical system such as a fibre-optic link.     

Risk assessment and laser safety

The basic tenets of risk assessment have always been applied in laser safety during the development of safety standards. For example, statistical methods were used in the probit analysis of the threshold of ocular injury; concepts of risk analysis were employed in the development of hazard classes, where the increased risk of exposure and potential for injury from increasing laser output power led to assignment of an increasing hazard class. In recent years, however, there has been a number of attempts to apply statistical probability analysis in the risk assessment of actual use conditions. However, once the hazard classification has been assigned, how should one further apply the techniques of risk assessment in the determination of hazard control measures, or does this lead to a potential controversy of what is the risk? Risk analysis is the evaluation of potentially hazardous exposure conditions coupled with a realistic assessment of actual human exposure. The maximum permissible exposure values for laser radiation coupled with the laser hazards classification scheme, already permit realistic health hazard evaluations. However, in determining effective hazard control measures, one must perform a risk analysis. A risk analysis must consider aspects of human behaviour and how behaviour affects exposure. This is frequently the area of greatest controversy in the derivation of safety standards; however, it is this aspect where standards are most needed.     

The need to certify products to CDRH Regulations

Laser products that are sold in the United States are required to comply with the regulations published by the Center for Devices and Radiological Health (CDRH) within the US Food and Drug Administration [1]. The need to certify products is straightforward in most instances, however, the applicability of the regulations is not as clear for: lasers sold only to Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) as components for incorporation into end-use products, end-use products that contain lasers which have already been certified by their manufacturers, and end-use products that are being imported into the US and that already comply with international laser safety standards. This article will discuss these applications in an attempt to clarify the need for certification by laser product manufacturers and importers. The discussion applies equally for lasers and laser systems.     

Protective area of laser eye protectors

An objective definition of the protective area of laser eye protectors is discussed. First an appropriate test method is described, which is based on the current eye protection standard EN 168. For a variety of already CE type approved laser eye protectors, i.e. for different goggle and spectacle types, results of corresponding measurements are shown. From these results the requirements on the vertical and horizontal angle ranges are derived, which have to be covered by laser eye protectors. This proposal will be implemented in the currently processed amendments of the laser safety standards EN 207 and EN 208.     

In vitro method for medical risk assessment of laser fumes

Laser processing of different materials may produce toxic fumes. In preventive occupational medicine it is necessary to evaluate valid hygienic standards for work places. The basis for such hygienic standards is the classification of laser fumes by their fibrogenic, emphysematous, immunological or other harmful potencies in biological assay systems. This paper is part of a European project on laser safety. Our part in this project is the development of a method for the investigation of lung responses using in vitro cell assays. The appropriate laser fume samples will be supplied by other groups in this European project. In contrast to the cell assays usually used in risk assessment, our method is based on isolated target cells in the lung, such as alveolar macrophages. The test criteria are mediator release, surfactant reactions, release of reactive oxygen species and cell proliferation. As demonstrated in the lung response to other dusts (minerals, fibres etc) these parameters are medically relevant factors in the pathogenic alveolar dust response. The paper gives basic information about the method using lung cell assays and the results of known substances, in comparison with a dust generated by laser processing.     

Photodestructive effect of IR laser radiation on the cornea

A mathematical model of the photodestructive effect of high-power IR laser radiation on cornea tissues is presented. The threshold energy exposure is calculated as a function of the wavelength and the laser pulse duration in the range 10^?5–10^?1 s under the assumption that the irreversible primary changes in the structure of tissues have a thermochemical nature. The adequacy of the model is supported by comparison of the results of calculations with a great body of experimental data available in the literature. The model is oriented for use in designing medical equipment (for example, for the refraction correction by the thermal keratoplasty method) and in refining the operating laser safety standards.     

Governance implications of nanomaterials companies’ inconsistent risk perceptions and safety practices

Current research on the nanotechnology industry indicates its downstream expansion at a rapid pace, while toxicological research and best practices for environmental health and safety are still being developed. Companies that use and/or produce engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) have enormous potential to influence safe-handling practices for ENMs across the product life cycle. Knowledge of both industry practices and leaders’ perceptions of risk is vital for understanding how companies will act to control potential environmental and health risks. This article reports results from a new international survey of nanomaterials companies in 14 countries. In this survey, company participants reported relatively high levels of uncertainty and/or perceived risk with regard to ENMs. However, these perspectives were not accompanied by expected risk-avoidant practices or preferences for regulatory oversight. A majority of companies indicated “lack of information” as a significant impediment to implementing nano-specific safety practices, but they also reported practices that were inconsistent with widely available guidance. Additionally, in the absence of safe-handling regulations, companies reported nano-specific health and safety programs that were narrow in scope. Taken together, these findings indicate that health and safety guidance is not reaching industry. While industry leaders’ reluctance toward regulation might be expected, their own reported unsafe practices and recognition of possible risks suggest a more top-down approach from regulators is needed to protect workers and the environment.     

Signal statistics of laser light scattering

After a brief survey of number fluctuations, a topic of current interest in light scattering research, the theory is developed for a particular case of this type. A laser beam of Gaussian cross section illuminates a volume in which there is a fluctuating number of identical particles. For incoherent detection the scattered intensities are additive. The interest centers on the statistics of the total scattered intensity. Starting from the moment generating function, the distribution function of scattered intensity is computed using two different methods. In an experiment designed to test the computed distributions, agreement between theory and measurement is found if the mean particle number within the scattering volume exceeds 3. The experimental procedure is described and some difficulties are explained which so far did not permit application of the theory for particle numbers much below 3.     

High power laser beam delivery monitoring for laser safety

The output of high power lasers used for material processing presents extreme radiation hazards. In normal operation this hazard is removed by the use of local shielding to prevent accidental exposure and system design to ensure efficient coupling of radiation into the workpiece. Faults in laser beam delivery or utilization can give rise to hazardous levels of laser radiation. A passive hazard control strategy requires that the laser system be enclosed such that the full laser power cannot burn through the housing under fault conditions. Usually this approach is too restrictive. Instead, active control strategies can be used in which a fault condition is detected and the laser cut off. This reduces the requirements for protective housing. In this work a distinction is drawn between reactive and proactive strategies. Reactive strategies rely on detecting the effects of an errant laser beam, whereas proactive strategies can anticipate as well as detect fault conditions. This can avoid the need for a hazardous situation to exist. A proactive strategy in which the laser beam is sampled at the final turning mirror is described in this work. Two control systems have been demonstrated; the first checks that beam power is within preset limits, the second monitors incoming beam power and position, and the radiation reflected back from the cutting head. In addition to their safety functions the accurate monitoring of power provides an additional benefit to the laser user.     

基于激光等离子体加速的自由电子激光研究新进展

激光等离子体加速器能够在cm尺度内产生GeV量级的高品质电子束,为研制台式化自由电子激光提供驱动源。但是受限于激光等离子体加速中的难点和现有技术发展,电子束的品质难以达到自由电子激光的需求,尤其在稳定性、发散角和能散等方面,阻碍了台式化自由电子激光的研制。介绍了基于激光等离子体加速器的自由电子激光的最新进展,整理了目前高增益自由电子激光实验过程中存在的主要挑战和对应的解决方案与实验进展,并展望未来的发展方向。最近的研究结果证明,通过控制和优化激光等离子体加速器的注入和加速过程产生的高品质电子束可以在指数增益区域实现自发辐射放大,产生高增益的辐射,这也推动基于激光等离子体加速器的自由电子激光研究进入了一个新的阶段。     

A compact frequency-doubled 10-kHz PRF copper-vapour-laser-pumped dye laser

A 10-kHz pulse-repetition-frequency dye-laser master-oscillator power amplifier, end-pumped by a copper vapour laser (CVL), is reported. This laser was based on recently available, lightweight and compact CVL and dye laser components. Dye laser tunability was achieved from 592 to 622 nm and, when the oscillator was etalon line-narrowed, up to 1.5 W of single-etalon-mode output was obtained from the amplifier at the 608-nm peak tuning wavelength. By frequency doubling this amplified output in a BBO crystal we obtained up to 225 mW of 5-GHz 308-nm output, which is suitable for the performance of tropospheric hydroxyl radical concentration measurements. Received: 16 July 2002 / Revised version: 6 November 2002 / Published online: 5 February 2003 RID="*" ID="*"Present address: Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EN, UK RID="**" ID="**"Corresponding author. Fax: +44-1865/272400, E-mail: d.coutts1@physics.ox.ac.uk     

Studies on the mechanisms of powerful terahertz radiations from laser plasmas

A survey on the mechanisms of powerful terahertz (THz) radiation from laser plasmas is presented.Firstly,an analytical model is described,showing that a transverse net current formed in a plasma can be converted into THz radiations at the plasma oscillation frequency.This theory is applied to explain THz generation in a gas driven by two-color laser pulses.It is also applied to THz generation in a tenuous plasma driven by a chirped laser pulse,a few-cycle laser pulse,a DC/AC bias electric field.These are well verified by particle-in-cell simulations,demonstrating that THz radiations produced in these approaches are nearly single-cycles and linear polarized.In the chirped laser scheme and the few-cycle laser scheme,THz radiations with the peak field strength of tens of MV/cm and the peak power of gigawatt can be achieved with the incident laser intensity less than 10 17 W/cm 2.     

激光二极管点火系统研究进展

综述了激光点火方式、激光二极管点火系统的组成及最新发展。提出了一种激光二极管点火系统结构,描述了各部分的关键技术。介绍了国外在光回路检测、保险与解保险及多路点火方面的研究成果,以及国内在温度控制、光纤芯径对点火阈值功率的影响和激光点火器设计的研究成果。指出了当前激光点火技术在武器装备中的应用和现阶段激光点火遇到的技术难点。     

Standards for surface flaws

A two channel microscope image comparator is described which is capable of quantifying all current national standard defects. It has been designed to solve the difficulties that arise when optically worked surfaces, which have been visually assessed, are transferred between companies working to different standards and methods of flaw measurement. The instrument, using both visual and objective methods, can give the same severity rating for a surface flaw, thus allowing for transferable standards.     

准分子宽带泵浦碱金属激光器

基于国内外相关研究成果,对准分子宽带泵浦碱金属激光器(XPAL)的原理进行了阐述,对其优缺点进行了分析,针对半导体泵浦碱金属蒸气激光器(DPAL)发展中所面临的困难,分析了XPAL解决这些困难的潜力。最后综述了XPAL近年的发展,提出了下一步的发展方向。     

Progress in the pumping of gamma-ray laser

A gamma-ray laser would stimulate coherent emission of radiation at wavelengths below 1 Å from excited states of nuclei. However, the difficulties in realizing such a device were considered insurmountable when the first cycle of study ended in1981. Since then, research on the feasibility of a gamma-ray laser has taken on a completely new character. A nuclear analog of the ruby laser has been proposed and many of the component steps for pumping the nuclei have been demonstrated experimentally. A quantitative model based upon the new data and the concepts of this decade shows the gamma-ray laser to be feasible if some real isotope has its properties sufficiently close to the ideals. The greatest positive impact has come from the discovery of giant resonances for pumping nuclei with photons that greatly reduce the levels of input power needed. Most recently, attention has been focused upon efforts to demonstrate prelasing levels of fluorescence from simulation nuclides and actual gamma-ray laser candidates. Problems being addressed are the acquisition of macroscopic samples of the best nuclei for testing and the demonstration of appropriate instrumentation.