How does huperzine A enter and leave the binding gorge of acetylcholinesterase? Steered molecular dynamics simulations

The entering and leaving processes of Huperzine A (HupA) binding with the long active-site gorge of Torpedo californica acetylcholinesterase (TcAChE) have been investigated by using steered molecular dynamics simulations. The analysis of the force required along the pathway shows that it is easier for HupA to bind to the active site of AChE than to disassociate from it, which for the first time interprets at the atomic level the previous experimental result that unbinding process of HupA is much slower than its binding process to AChE. The direct hydrogen bonds, water bridges, and hydrophobic interactions were analyzed during two steered molecular dynamics (SMD) simulations. Break of the direct hydrogen bond needs a great pulling force. The steric hindrance of bottleneck might be the most important factor to produce the maximal rupture force for HupA to leave the binding site but it has a little effect on the binding process of HupA with AChE. Residue Asp72 forms a lot of water bridges with HupA leaving and entering the AChE binding gorge, acting as a clamp to take out HupA from or put HupA into the active site. The flip of the peptide bond between Gly117 and Gly118 has been detected during both the conventional MD and SMD simulations. The simulation results indicate that this flip phenomenon could be an intrinsic property of AChE and the Gly117-Gly118 peptide bond in both HupA bound and unbound AChE structures tends to adopt the native enzyme structure. At last, in a vacuum the rupture force is increased up to 1500 pN while in water solution the greatest rupture force is about 800 pN, which means water molecules in the binding gorge act as lubricant to facilitate HupA entering or leaving the binding gorge.     

A quantitative determination of organophosphate pesticides in organic solvents

An amperometric acetylcholinesterase (AChE) biosensor based on thiocholine-hexacyanoferrate reaction was developed for the analysis of OPCs in pure organic solvents. The enzyme (AChE) was co-immobilized with an electron mediator, Prussian Blue, on the surface of a graphite electrode. The effect of organic solvents on acetylcholinesterase activity was estimated in the presence of polar (hydrophilic) and non-polar (hydrophobic) organic solvents in the range of 0.01–100%. The ability of the AChE biosensor to detect pesticides was demonstrated by quantitative determination of dichlorvos, fenthion and diazinon in ethanol solvent. The assay allows determination of OPCs in sub-micromolar concentration ranges with an overall assay time of 10 minutes. The sensing elements of the amperometric AChE biosensor can be stored in dry state for more than 2 months. The AChE biosensor possesses distinct advantages, including monitoring of hydrophobic substrates, elimination of microbial contamination, and relative ease of enzyme immobilization. Potential application areas include food analysis and environmental monitoring.     

石杉碱甲-AChE复合物中石杉碱甲的结构特征: 量子化学研究

在运用量子化学从头计算方法(HF/4-31G)结合点电荷模型方法对AChE-HupA复合物活性位点的410个原子和1929个点电荷进行理论计算的基础上, 比较了石杉碱甲分子在形成复合物前后的结构变化特征。发现复合物中石杉碱甲分子构象并非能量最低构象, 它的能量比HF/4-31G全优化得到的构象的能量高91.8kj/mol。和单分子状态相比, 形成复合物后季铵基和内酰胺基的N-H, C=O键的键长变长、键强减弱, 其总原子净电荷也发生了明显的变化。且这些基团的空间取向都有不同程度的改变, C(8)-N(21)键的旋转达20ⅲ。这些信息将有益于设计新的AChE抑制剂。     

Amperometric Biosensor Based on Immobilization Acetylcholinesterase on Manganese Porphyrin Nanoparticles for Detection of Trichlorfon with Flow‐Injection Analysis System

A highly sensitive amperometric biosensor for the detection of organophosphate pesticides (OPs) is developed. The biosensor was fabricated by immobilized acetylcholinesterase (AChE) on manganese (III) meso‐tetraphenylporphyrin (MnTPP) nanoparticles (NPs)‐modified glassy carbon (GC) electrode. The MnTPP NPs used in this article were synthesized by mixing solvent techniques. AChE enzyme was immobilized on the MnTPP NPs surface by conjugated with chitosan (CHIT). The electrocatalytic activity of MnTPP NPs led to a greatly improved performance for thiocholine (TCh) product detection. The developed AChE‐CHIT/MnTPPNP/GC biosensor integrated with a flow‐injection analysis (FIA) system was used to monitor trichlorfon (typical OP). A wide linear inhibition response for trichlorfon is observed in the range of 1.0 nM–1.0 mM, corresponding to 10–83% inhibition for AChE with a detection limit of 0.5 nM.     

Lowering the detection limit of the acetylcholinesterase biosensor using a nanoporous carbon matrix

Nanostructured carbon matrix has been used for the immobilization and stabilization of the enzyme E.el. AChE. The use of this activated carbon matrix is shown to provide both, significant enzyme stabilization, as well as the means for lowering the detection limit of the biosensor. The enzyme is immobilized by adsorption into the nanostructured conductive carbon, which also acts as the working electrode. The proposed biosensor showed very good stability under continuous operation conditions (L₅₀ > 60 days), allowing its further use in inhibition mode. Using this biosensor, the monitoring of the organophosphorus pesticide dichlorvos at picomolar levels (1000 times lower than other systems reported so far) was achieved. The linear range of detection in flow injection system was six orders of magnitude (10⁻¹² to 10⁻⁶ M). It is suggested that the ability of activated carbon to selectively concentrate the pesticide, as well as the enzyme hyperactivity within the nanopores is the reason for the decrease in the detection limit of the biosensor.     

A Disposable Biosensor for Organophosphorus Nerve Agents Based on Carbon Nanotubes Modified Thick Film Strip Electrode

A disposable biosensor based on acetylcholinesterase‐functionalized acid purified multi‐wall carbon nanotubes (CNTs) modified thick film strip electrode for organophosphorus (OP) insecticides was developed. The degree of inhibition of the enzyme acteylcholinesterase (AChE) by OP compounds was determined by measuring the electrooxidation current of the thiocholine generated by the AChE catalyzed hydrolysis of acteylthiocholine (ATCh). The large surface area and electro‐catalytic activity of carbon nanotubes lowered the overpotential for thiocholine oxidation to 200 mV (vs. Ag/AgCl) without the use of mediating redox species and enzyme immobilization by physical adsorption. The biosensor detected as low as 0.5 nM (0.145 ppb) of the model organophosphate nerve agent paraoxon with good precision, electrode to electrode reproducibility and stability. Analysis of real water sample using the sensor demonstrated the feasibility of the application of the sensor for on site monitoring of OP compounds.     

Ionic liquid-functionalized graphene for fabricating an amperometric acetylcholinesterase biosensor

This work reports a sensitive amperometric biosensor for organophosphate pesticides (OPs) fabricated by modifying a glassy carbon electrode with acetylcholinesterase (AChE) immobilized on ionic liquid-functionalized graphene (IL-G). The functionalized graphene sheets had good dispersibility and long-term stability in various solvents. The as-prepared biosensor showed high affinity to acetylthiocholine (ATCl) with a Michaelis-Menten constant (K(m)) value of 0.77 mM. Furthermore, based on the inhibition by OPs of the enzymatic activity of the immobilized AChE, and using carbaryl as a model compound, the inhibition of carbaryl was proportional to its concentration ranging from 0.0025 to 0.48 and 0.48 to 1.42 μg mL(-1) with a detection limit of 0.8 ng mL(-1) (S/N = 3). The developed biosensor exhibited a good performance for OPs detection, including good reproducibility and acceptable stability, which provided a new and promising tool for the analysis of enzyme inhibitors.     

Amperometric determination of organophosphate pesticides using a acetylcholinesterase based biosensor made from nitrogen-doped porous carbon deposited on a boron-doped diamond electrode

Microchimica Acta - The authors describe an amperometric biosensor for the determination of organophosphate pesticides (OPs) via inhibition of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE). The enzyme was...     

A rational design of the multiwalled carbon nanotube–7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethan sensor for sensitive detection of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors

A new, simple and effective amperometric acetylcholinesterase biosensor was developed using screen-printed carbon electrodes modified with carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs)–7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ). The design of the biosensor was based on the supramolecular arrangement resulted from the interaction of MWCNTs and TCNQ. This arrangement was confirmed by spectroscopic and electrochemical techniques. Two different supramolecular arrangements were proposed based on different MWCNTs:TCNQ ratios. The synergistic effect of MWCNTs and TCNQ was, for the first time, exploited for detection of thiocholine at low potential with high sensitivity. The biosensor developed by immobilization of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in sol–gel allowed the detection of two reference AChE inhibitors, paraoxon-methyl and chlorpyrifos with detection limits of 30 pM (7 ppt) and 0.4 nM (0.1 ppb), respectively. Efficient enzyme reactivation was obtained by using obidoxime.     

层层自组装纳米金与乙酰胆碱酯酶电化学生物传感器检测有机磷农药

采用层层自组装技术制备了快速检测有机磷农药的生物传感器,利用带正电荷的高分子聚电解质聚二烯丙基二甲基氯化铵(PDDA)将乙酰胆碱酯酶(AChE)和金纳米粒子(AuNPs)通过静电力逐层固定到玻碳电极(GCE)表面,并采用交流阻抗和微分脉冲伏安法研究了此生物传感器的电化学行为。由于金纳米粒子优异的电催化性能和良好的生物相容性,使固定化的乙酰胆碱酯酶对其底物具有更高的亲和力和更快的响应速度。实验结果表明:修饰金纳米粒子后,传感器的氧化电流明显增大,在4.6×10-5～5.3×10-3mol/L范围内,固定化酶的抑制率与甲基对硫磷浓度的对数成正比,检出限为7.6×10-6mol/L。该生物传感器具有制备方法简便、成本低、灵敏度高等优点,已成功用于蔬菜样品中甲基对硫磷含量的测定。     

Electrochemical Determination of Malathion on an Acetylcholinesterase-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode

An acetylcholinesterase biosensor based on glassy carbon electrode modified with carbon black and pillar[5]arene was used for the determination of malathion after its preliminary oxidation. The contributions of enzyme immobilization and oxidation conditions to the improvement of analytical characteristics of the biosensor were considered and quantified. In optimal conditions, the acetylcholinesterase biosensor allows the determination of 40 pM of malathion with 10?min of incubation and 15 pM with 30?min of incubation. The sensitivity of immobilized enzyme was found to be higher than that the free enzyme due to sorbtional accumulation in the modifier layer. Incomplete oxidation of malathion decreased the sensitivity of the assay. The developed acetylcholinesterase biosensor was validated for the determination of malathion residues in grapes, wine, and peanuts. The recoveries calculated against a high-performance liquid chromatography assay were between 80 and 120% due to possible matrix effects and the simplified extraction protocols.     

Huperzine A and Its Neuroprotective Molecular Signaling in Alzheimer’s Disease

Huperzine A (HupA), an alkaloid found in the club moss Huperzia serrata, has been used for centuries in Chinese folk medicine to treat dementia. The effects of this alkaloid have been attributed to its ability to inhibit the cholinergic enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE), acting as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor (AChEI). The biological functions of HupA have been studied both in vitro and in vivo, and its role in neuroprotection appears to be a good therapeutic candidate for Alzheimer´s disease (AD). Here, we summarize the neuroprotective effects of HupA on AD, with an emphasis on its interactions with different molecular signaling avenues, such as the Wnt signaling, the pre- and post-synaptic region mechanisms (synaptotagmin, neuroligins), the amyloid precursor protein (APP) processing, the amyloid-β peptide (Aβ) accumulation, and mitochondrial protection. Our goal is to provide an integrated overview of the molecular mechanisms through which HupA affects AD.     

The Lycopodium alkaloids

Lycopodium alkaloids are quinolizine, or pyridine and alpha-pyridone type alkaloids. Some Lycopodium alkaloids are potent inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase (AChE). Huperzine A (HupA) is reported to increase efficiency for learning and memory in animals, and it shows promise in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD). 201 Lycopodium alkaloids from 54 species of Lycopodium (sensu lato) have been reported so far. This review is intended to to cover the chemical, pharmacological and clinical research on Lycopodium alkaloids reported in the literature from the spring of 1993 to August 2004. Structures of 81 new Lycopodium alkaloids are presented, classified and analyzed. The structural characters and biogenetic relationships of the four major Lycopodium alkaloid groups (lycopodine, lycodine, fawcettimine and miscellaneous) are discussed. Bioactivities of Lycopodium alkaloids, especially HupA, are summarized. In particular, the effect of HupA and other cholinesterase inhibitors (anti-AD drugs) on acetylcholine esterase (AChE) activity in the rat cortex and butylcholine esterase activity are compared. Structure-activity relationships and structure modifications of HupA and its analogs are described. Information on clinical trials with HupA and its derivative ZT-1 is presented. The state of HupA availability and recent advances in in vitro propagation of HupA producing plants are outlined. Finally, hypotheses about Lycopodium alkaloid biosynthetic pathways are discussed.     

Acetylcholinesterase Sensor with Patterned Structure for Detecting Organophosphorus Pesticides Based on Titanium Dioxide Sol‐gel Carrier

In this paper, novel and stable acetylcholinesterase (AChE) sensor with patterned structure for detecting organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) based on titanium dioxide sol‐gel carrier was proposed and prepared. Biosensor was assembled by dropping titanium oxide, chitosan (CS) and enzyme to the surface of the glass carbon step by step. The concentration range of the sensor detection for dichlorvos (DDVP) is 1.13 nM to 22.6 μM, and the limit of detection (LOD) is 0.23 nM. It can also detect dichlorvos in cabbage juice samples accurately. The preparation of biosensor adopted a patterned novel structure for the first time, which opens a new way for the structure optimization of organophosphorus pesticide sensor.     

基于乙酰胆碱酯酶生物传感平台的西维因检测

为给农药西维因检测提供一种新方法,根据西维因抑制乙酰胆碱酯酶活性的原理,以黑珍珠2000（BP2000）为乙酰胆碱酯酶的固定化材料,采用滴凃电极法构建了基于乙酰胆碱酯酶的西维因生物传感平台. 结果表明,固定在BP2000 上的乙酰胆碱酯酶保持了对氯化乙酰胆碱的催化活性,并且由于BP2000 材料的引入,提升了电极有效的电化学活性表面积,而且电极上物质的电化学氧化拥有较低氧化电位（0.630 V）并伴随质子传输. 由BP2000 搭建成功的乙酰胆碱酯酶生物传感平台对西维因检测的线性响应范围为2.0 ng·mL^-1 ~ 12.5 ng·mL^-1,检测限为3.15 ng·mL^-1. 本研究对酶生物传感平台和酶生物燃料电池体系中酶电极的构建提供了一种简单方法及高效载体.     

Amperometric determination of H2O2 at nano-TiO2/DNA/thionin nanocomposite modified electrode

We report electrochemical preparation and characterization of a new biosensor made of nanostructured titanium dioxide (nano-TiO(2)) particles and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Thionin (TN) redox mediator was electrochemically deposited onto DNA/nano-TiO(2) modified glassy carbon electrode (GCE). The X-ray diffraction analysis, atomic force microscope (AFM) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) were used for surface analysis of TN/DNA/nano-TiO(2) film. In neutral buffer solution, TN/DNA/nano-TiO(2)/GCE biosensor exhibited excellent electrocatalytic activity towards the reduction of hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) and oxygen (O(2)). The biosensor shows excellent analytical performance for amperometric determination of H(2)O(2), at reduced overpotential (-0.2V). The detection limit and liner calibration range were found to be 0.05mM (S/N=3) and 0.05-22.3mM, respectively. In addition, determination of H(2)O(2) in real samples was carried out using the new biosensor with satisfactory results. The TN/DNA/nano-TiO(2)/GCE showed stable and reproducible analytical performance towards the reduction of H(2)O(2). This biosensor can be used as an amperometric biosensor for the determination of H(2)O(2) in real samples.     

Carbon nanotube-enhanced electrochemical DNA biosensor for DNA hybridization detection

A novel and sensitive electrochemical DNA biosensor based on multi-walled carbon nanotubes functionalized with a carboxylic acid group (MWNTs-COOH) for covalent DNA immobilization and enhanced hybridization detection is described. The MWNTs-COOH-modified glassy carbon electrode (GCE) was fabricated and oligonucleotides with the 5'-amino group were covalently bonded to the carboxyl group of carbon nanotubes. The hybridization reaction on the electrode was monitored by differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) analysis using an electroactive intercalator daunomycin as an indicator. Compared with previous DNA sensors with oligonucleotides directly incorporated on carbon electrodes, this carbon nanotube-based assay with its large surface area and good charge-transport characteristics dramatically increased DNA attachment quantity and complementary DNA detection sensitivity. This is the first application of carbon nanotubes to the fabrication of an electrochemical DNA biosensor with a favorable performance for the rapid detection of specific hybridization.     

Acetylcholinesterase immobilised eggshell membrane-based optical biosensor for organophosphate detection

The development of an optical biosensor for the determination of malathion based on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition using Ellman’s reagent is reported. The AChE has been immobilised onto the eggshell membrane (ESM) using glutaraldehyde as a cross-linking agent. Scanning Electron Microscopic (SEM) studies and Fourier Transformed Infra-Red (FTIR) characterisations have been carried out to affirm the successful immobilisation of AChE onto the ESM. Under optimum conditions, the developed biosensor estimated the pesticide concentration in the range of 0.1–50 ng/mL with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.1 ng/mL within 30 min. Parameters affecting the biosensor response such as concentration of enzyme, substrate and inhibition time were optimised. The stability and reusability of the AChE/ESM sensor have been observed as 31 days at 4°C and two times, respectively.     

Immobilization of Xanthine Oxidase on Carbon Nanotubes Through Double Supramolecular Junctions for Biosensor Construction

A novel approach for the noncovalent functionalization of single‐walled carbon nanotubes with enzymes, using a β‐cyclodextrin‐modified pyrene derivative, mono‐6‐ethylenediamino‐(2‐pyrene carboxamido)‐6‐deoxy‐β‐cyclodextrin (Pyr‐βCD), as a molecular bridge for the construction of a supramolecular assembly between the nanotube surface and an adamantane‐modified enzyme, is reported. The Pyr‐βCD derivative was synthesized and its stacking to SWNT through π–π interactions accomplished. The functionalized nanotubes showed low capacity for the nonspecific adsorption of proteins, but were able to immobilize adamantane‐modified xanthine oxidase via host‐guest associations. This double supramolecular junctions‐based approach was employed to modify a glassy carbon electrode with the enzyme/nanotubes complex for designing a biosensor device toward xanthine. The biosensor showed fast electroanalytical response (10 s), high sensitivity (5.9 mA/M cm²) low detection limit (2 µM) and high stability.     

AuNPs/Sol-gel复合膜法固定乙酰胆碱酯酶生物传感器检测有机磷农药

基于有机磷农药对乙酰胆碱酯酶(Acetylcholinesterase,AChE)的抑制作用,用金纳米粒子(Au nanoparticles,AuNPs)与壳聚糖/SiO2杂化溶胶-凝胶构成复合固酶基质,将AChE固定于玻碳电极表面,制备了电流型AChE生物传感器选用久效磷进行实验,以氯化硫代乙酰胆碱为底物,建立了电化...