基于产品生命周期的闭环供应链定价和协调策略研究

研究产品生命周期条件下一个制造商、一个零售商组成的闭环供应链的定价和协调策略:制造商第一周期只生产新品,从第二周期开始生产再制造品,并负责回收。建立了两周期、多周期和无限周期下的分散决策模型和多周期下的集中决策模型,得到最优定价和生产策略。结果表明:两周期中,制造商和零售商应根据不同的成本节约额制定不同的批发价、零售价和生产量。多周期中,当成本节约额比较小时,除第一和最后一个周期外,制造商和零售商应采取相同的定价和生产策略;当成本节约额比较大时,除第一和最后两个周期外,制造商和零售商应采取相同的定价和生产策略。无限周期中,除第一周期以外,制造商和零售商都应该采取相同的定价和生产策略。在有限周期情况下,制造商和零售商应通过在前期制定比较低的批发价和零售价,以提高生产量和销售量,使得后期的回收量增大,达到降低成本的目的。通过引入收益共享契约制定合适的批发价和销售收入及再制造收益共享比率可以协调整个闭环供应链。算例验证了上述结论。     

Dynamic pricing of remanufacturable products under demand substitution: a product life cycle model

We consider a manufacturer who sells both the new and remanufactured versions of a product over its life cycle. The manufacturer’s profit depends crucially on her ability to synchronize product returns with the sales of the remanufactured product. This gives rise to a challenging dynamic optimization problem where the size of both the market and the user pool are dynamic and their current values depend on the entire history. We provide an analytical characterization of the manufacturer’s optimal pricing, production, and inventory policies which lead to a practical threshold policy with a small optimality gap. In addition, our analysis offers a number of interesting insights. First, the timing of remanufacturing activity and its co-occurrence with new product manufacturing critically depends on remanufacturing cost benefits, attractiveness of the remanufactured product and product return rate. Second, there is a small upward jump in the price of the new product when remanufacturing is introduced. Third, the manufacturer keeps the new product longer on the market as the cost of remanufacturing decreases. Fourth, partially satisfying demand for the remanufactured item is never optimal, i.e., it is satisfied either fully or not at all. Finally, user pool and inventory of returned products are substitutes in ensuring the supply for future remanufacturing.     

随机环境下再制造产品的定价策略研究

再制造产品的定价是逆向供应链中重要的决策问题之一。依据目前我国废旧品回收和再制造的运作机制,在随机环境下建立了以传统生产厂为主导、再制造工厂为从属的Stackelberg博弈模型,分析了新产品与再制造产品的差异定价策略,结合数值算例给出了最优的定价结果。并进一步将模型进行扩展,考虑了二者形成垂直纳什均衡以及存在集成厂商时的情形。研究表明:集成厂商对两种产品的定价最高,系统收益也最大,Stack-elberg情形次之,纳什均衡时最低。     

Transnational remanufacturing decisions under carbon taxes and tariffs

Considering the influence of carbon taxes and tariffs on transnational closed-loop supply chains, this paper establishes three remanufacturing modes of an original equipment manufacturer (OEM) in an exporting country. In one remanufacturing mode, the OEM conducts remanufacturing itself, and in the other two modes, the OEM authorizes a retailer in the importing country to engage in remanufacturing. Next, we analyse the optimal pricing and carbon emissions reduction decisions of the OEM and retailer in the different modes and further study how different levels of carbon tax and tariff combinations impact OEM remanufacturing decisions, the social welfare of importing countries and the environment. The results show the following. (1) When the carbon tariff is high, the optimal sales of remanufactured products increase. However, this does not contribute to the continuation of the product system; thus, it is short sighted for the government to hastily set high carbon tariffs to discourage the import of new products to protect domestic enterprises. (2) Carbon tariffs cannot effectively encourage the OEM to invest in emission reduction because carbon tariffs are passed on to consumers in importing countries through price adjustment. However, carbon tax may be an indirect factor affecting the OEM's willingness to invest in emission reduction. (3) The OEM favours allowing the retailer to remanufacture when the carbon emissions of the remanufactured products are similar to those of new products. Co-investment in emission reduction has the potential to align the profit maximization of the OEM with the social welfare maximization of the importing country. (4) It is not profitable for the importing government to set high carbon tariffs to protect its own enterprises.     

竞争市场下考虑再制造产品售后服务的供应链运营策略

在同时生产新产品和再制造产品的原始制造企业(企业1)与生产具有替代性产品的企业(企业2)构成竞争关系下的供应链系统中,探讨供应链在不同售后服务策略下供应链的运营策略,分析在竞争市场下供应链定价策略和再制造产品的售后服务对定价策略及供应链中各企业利润的影响。揭示再制造产品售后服务对定价策略和供应链各企业最优利润的影响。得到如下主要研究结论:(1)当制造企业为再制造产品提供售后服务时,再制造产品销售量增加,新产品和竞争替代产品销售量降低;有趣的是新产品和再制造产品的市场零售价格同时增加,竞争替代产品的市场零售价格降低。(2)制造企业为再制造产品提供售后服务时的利润总是大于没有售后服务时的利润,且不受单位产品生产成本影响。同时当单位产品生产成本较高时,制造企业为再制造产品提供售后服务策略会带来竞争对手企业利润增加。这些结论对具有再制造产品供应链如何提供再制造产品售后服务具有一定指导作用和管理启示。     

Supply planning models for a remanufacturer under just-in-time manufacturing environment with reverse logistics

We study a supply planning problem in a manufacturing system with two stages. The first stage is a remanufacturer that supplies two closely-related components to the second (manufacturing) stage, which uses each component as the basis for its respective product. The used products are recovered from the market by a third-party logistic provider through an established reverse logistics network. The remanufacturer may satisfy the manufacturer’s demand either by purchasing new components or by remanufacturing components recovered from the returned used products. The remanufacturer’s costs arise from product recovery, remanufacturing components, purchasing original components, holding inventories of recovered products and remanufactured components, production setups (at the first stage and at each component changeover), disposal of recovered products that are not remanufactured, and coordinating the supply modes. The objective is to develop optimal production plans for different production strategies. These strategies are differentiated by whether inventories of recovered products or remanufactured components are carried, and by whether the order in which retailers are served during the planning horizon may be resequenced. We devise production policies that minimize the total cost at the remanufacturer by specifying the quantity of components to be remanufactured, the quantity of new components to be purchased from suppliers, and the quantity of recovered used products that must be disposed. The effects of production capacity are also explored. A comprehensive computational study provides insights into this closed-loop supply chain for those strategies that are shown to be NP-hard.     

基于经销商再制造的闭环供应链政府补贴策略及效果分析

针对制造商负责再制造设计,经销商负责再制造的闭环供应链系统,建立政府无补贴、补贴经销商再制造和补贴制造商再制造设计3种策略下的Stackelberg博弈模型,分析不同补贴策略对供应链成员企业决策的影响。同时,应用数值仿真方法研究相同补贴支出下两种补贴策略的优劣。结果表明:相对于无补贴策略,两种补贴策略均会降低再制品和新产品的销售价格,提高再制品销售量,提升再制造设计水平,并且在再制品需求量小于新产品需求量时均会降低新产品销售量,在再制品和新产品的需求量相等时均会提高新产品销售量;另外,在相同的补贴支出下,当新产品需求量大于再制品需求量时,补贴经销商更能降低两种产品的销售价格和新产品的销售量,提高再制品销售量和制造商与经销商的利润,补贴制造商则更能提升再制造设计水平。     

The value of dynamic pricing for cores in remanufacturing with backorders

In remanufacturing, the supply of used products and the demand for remanufactured products are usually mismatched because of the great uncertainties on both sides. In this paper, we propose a dynamic pricing (DP) policy to balance this uncertain supply and demand. Specifically, we study a remanufacturer’s problem of pricing a single class of cores with random price-dependent returns and random demand for the remanufactured products with backlogs. We model this pricing task as a continuous-time Markov decision process, which addresses both the finite and infinite horizon problems, and provide managerial insights by analysing the structural properties of the optimal policy. We then use several computational examples to illustrate the impacts of particular system parameters on pricing policy and the benefit of DP. In addition, the models are extended to account for the price adjustment costs. We show through numerical example that the nice structural properties do not exist any longer, and find when DP is better than static pricing.     

基于回收风险的闭环供应链差异定价决策研究

随着资源的匮乏和环境污染的加剧,越来越多的企业和消费者开始关注废旧产品的回收再制造。针对制造商唯一寡头垄断市场竞争结构,引入回收风险,分别对制造商(OEM)自行回收废旧产品的闭环供应链、第三方回收商回收废旧产品的闭环供应链建立数学模型,分析给出各企业的最优差异定价规则,并从经济学意义上得到相关管理启示;数值实验的结果则进一步验证回购价格、回收风险、价格竞争强度对最优解的影响。研究结果表明:(1)闭环供应链结构会影响再制品价格及废旧产品的回收价格,但对OEM新品定价无影响。(2)回收风险的变化对价格决策的影响取决于闭环供应链的结构特征。当回收风险较低时,在激发消费者对再制品需求、促使消费者返回废旧产品、提升闭环供应链整体效率等方面,OEM自行回收模式优于第三方回收商回收模式;而当回收风险较高时,则第三方回收商回收模式优于OEM自行回收模式。(3)回收风险的降低使得闭环供应链总利润呈现出增长的趋势,进而进一步体现到再制造的经济价值。(4)OEM自行回收废旧产品需考虑到新品与再制品间的价格竞争强度,当价格竞争强度较弱时,OEM自行回收废旧产品可为OEM带来更多的利润;新品与再制品间的价格竞争也有利于再制品需求的提升。     

Pricing used products for remanufacturing

Remanufacturing is one of recovery options for used products. As remanufacturing requires a continuous supply of used products, the economic incentive is required to attract customers to return their used products (called cores) and the problem of pricing a core becomes an important issue. Such a pricing problem is analogous to pricing an option, which can be used to sell the remanufactured cores (called core products). As sales price of core products follows a geometric Brownian motion, we propose a model here to evaluate the acquisition price of cores. This model links core acquisition price with the sale price of core product but assumes other costs such as logistics and remanufacturing to be deterministic. We have presented a numerical example to show its applicability. Since the model proposed here is generic, it is believed that the proposed model can be used in setting the core prices in many situations.     

二手市场对耐用品垄断厂商再制造决策的影响分析

考虑耐用品可多周期使用的特点,从消费者效用角度建立了无限周期中存在二手市场时耐用品垄断厂商再制造决策模型。运用稳态均衡分析方法得到,二手市场会降低耐用品垄断厂商选择再制造策略的成本临界值;提高再制造耐用品的最优定价、降低新耐用品的最优定价;新耐用品价值越高、再制造成本越低,二手市场对耐用品垄断厂商的最优决策影响越大。最后,通过数值分析验证了理论分析的结论。     

Product-design and pricing strategies with remanufacturing

In this paper, we consider a supply chain that consists of an original equipment manufacturer (OEM) producing new products and a remanufacturer recovering the used items. The OEM often faces a strategic dilemma when determining the degree of disassemblability of its product design, as high disassemblability decreases the OEM’s production costs as well as the remanufacturer’s recovery costs. However, high disassemblability may be harmful to the OEM in a market in which the remanufacturer is encouraged to intensify price competition with the OEM because design for high disassemblability leads to larger cost savings in remanufacturing. We first formulate a two-period model to investigate the OEM’s product-design strategy and the remanufacturer’s pricing strategy in an extensive-form game, in which the equilibrium decisions of the resulting scenarios are derived. Next, we show the thresholds that determine whether remanufacturing is constrained by collection, the thresholds for the remanufacturer’s choice of a profitable pricing strategy, and the thresholds for determining the OEM’s product-design strategy. Finally, we expand the model for a multiple-period problem to show that the main insights obtained from the two-period model can be applied.     

Production planning and inventory control with remanufacturing and disposal

In this paper we consider a stochastic inventory system with production, remanufacturing, and disposal operations. Customer demands must either be fulfilled from the production of new products or by the remanufacturing of used products. Used products are either remanufactured or disposed of. To coordinate production, remanufacturing and disposal operations efficiently, we extend the PUSH and PULL strategies that Van der Laan et al. developed to control a system in which all returned products are remanufactured and no planned disposals occur. The other contributions of this paper are to indicate when and why planned disposals are economically beneficial, and to compare the PUSH-disposal strategy to the PULL-disposal strategy. In addition, we investigate the robustness of the control parameters of the PUSH- and PULL-disposal strategy over the different stages of a product life-cycle.     

两阶段再制造企业的产品定价研究

二手产品的回收再处理是众多制造商和再制造商不得不面对的问题.企业根据实际情况,考虑到顾客对再制造产品的认知差异,一般都是先翻新产品然后再升级再制造产品,因此,顾客对再制造产品的接受程度影响着再制造企业的定价决策,针对该问题构建了一个两阶段模型,其中第一阶段再制造企业将回收的产品进行简单翻新并投放市场;第二阶段,则会将产品拆卸加工再升级.以两阶段的价格作为决策变量分析再制造企业的最优生产策略.通过仿真得出结论,为再制造企业的生产决策提供一些依据.     

On the optimal control of manufacturing and remanufacturing activities with a single shared server

We consider a single-product make-to-stock manufacturing–remanufacturing system. Returned products require remanufacturing before they can be sold. The manufacturing and remanufacturing operations are executed by the same single server, where switching from one activity to another does not involve time or cost and can be done at an arbitrary moment in time. Customer demand can be fulfilled by either newly manufactured or remanufactured products. The times for manufacturing and remanufacturing a product are exponentially distributed. Demand and used products arrive via mutually independent Poisson processes. Disposal of products is not allowed and all used products that are returned have to be accepted. Using Markov decision processes, we investigate the optimal manufacture–remanufacture policy that minimizes holding, backorder, manufacturing and remanufacturing costs per unit of time over an infinite horizon. For a subset of system parameter values we are able to completely characterize the optimal continuous-review dynamic preemptive policy. We provide an efficient algorithm based on quasi-birth–death processes to compute the optimal policy parameter values. For other sets of system parameter values, we present some structural properties and insights related to the optimal policy and the performance of some simple threshold policies.     

质量约束下闭环供应链差异决策研究

针对由一原始设备制造商和一独立再制商所组成的闭环供应链系统,考虑到新品质量水平对独立再制商可回收量的质量约束效应,以及新品与再制品的价格及质量竞争,分别构建了原始设备制造商领导、独立再制商领导、无领导三种不同市场结构下闭环供应链决策模型,探讨了质量约束效应对闭环供应链运营的影响。研究表明:(1)三种市场结构下,新品和再制品两者在“质量水平-价格”两维度均有所差异,且市场地位的不对等有利于产品质量水平的共同提升;(2)质量约束效应的存在会对产品的价格和质量同时产生影响;(3)再制品具有质量劣势,且质量约束效应的增强,再制品质量劣势越大;(4)市场结构的变化及质量约束效应的强弱并不会影响市场总需求量,仅仅会影响成员企业的市场份额;在大多数情况下,消费者对新品需求更为活跃。但当原始设备制造商为市场领导者时,质量约束效应低于一阈值水平时,再制品销量反而高于新品销量;(5)无论从成员个体,还是从供应链整体,原始设备制造商为领导者的市场结构最有效,且新品质量约束效应并不会影响供应链总利润,仅影响成员企业在总利润中的分成;新品质量约束效应的增强更有利于原始设备制造商利润的改善,但同时会损害独立再制商利润。     

Dismantle or remanufacture?

In this paper we study a firm’s disposition decision for returned end-of-use products, which can either be remanufactured and sold, or dismantled into parts that can be reused. We formulate this problem as a multi-period stochastic dynamic program, and find the structure of the optimal policy, which consists of monotonic switching curves. Specifically, if it is optimal to remanufacture in a given period and for given inventory levels, then it is also optimal to remanufacture when the inventory of part(s) is higher or the inventory of remanufactured product is lower.     

Don’t forget your supplier when remanufacturing

A popular assumption in the current literature on remanufacturing is that the whole new product is produced by an integrated manufacturer, which is inconsistent with most industries. In this paper, we model a decentralised closed-loop supply chain consisting of a key component supplier and a non-integrated manufacturer, and demonstrate that the interaction between these players significantly impacts the economic and environmental implications of remanufacturing. In our model, the non-integrated manufacturer can purchase new components from the supplier to produce new products, and remanufacture used components to produce remanufactured products. Thus, the non-integrated manufacturer is not only a buyer but also a rival to the supplier. In a steady state period, we analyse the performances of an integrated manufacturer and the decentralised supply chain. We find that, although the integrated manufacturer always benefits from remanufacturing, the remanufacturing opportunity may constitute a lose–lose situation to the supplier and the non-integrated manufacturer, making their profits be lower than in an identical supply chain without remanufacturing. In addition, the non-integrated manufacturer may be worse off with a lower remanufacturing cost or a larger return rate of used products due to the interaction with the supplier. We further demonstrate that the government-subsidised remanufacturing in the non-integrated (integrated) manufacturer is detrimental (beneficial) to the environment.     

Heuristics with guaranteed performance bounds for a manufacturing system with product recovery

We consider a manufacturing system with product recovery. The system manufactures a new product as well as remanufactures the product from old, returned items. The items remanufactured with the returned products are as good as new and satisfy the same demand as the new item. The demand rate for the new item and the return rate for the old item are deterministic and constant. The relevant costs are the holding costs for the new item and the returned item, and the fixed setup costs for both manufacturing and remanufacturing. The objective is to determine the lot sizes and production schedule for manufacturing and remanufacturing so as to minimize the long-run average cost per unit time. We first develop a lower bound among all classes of policies for the problem. We then show that the optimal integer ratio policy for the problem obtains a solution whose cost is at most 1.5% more than the lower bound.     

差异化定价策略下政府规制对生产者尽规模式选择的影响

单寡头垄断生产者同时生产新产品和再制造品,政府通过规定最低循环率对生产者行为进行约束。首先,研究差异化定价策略下政府规制对生产者尽规模式选择的影响,即生产者责任实现情况;然后,探究两种定价策略下生产者尽规的实现方式;最后,分析生产者如何选择两种定价策略。研究结果表明,生产者有三种尽规模式,并得到各尽规模式之间的阈值;随着规制水平的提高,低定价策略下将通过扩大新产品和再制造品生产规模的方式实现尽规,而高定价策略则通过减少新产品产量和增加再制造品的产量的方式实现尽规;当绿色消费者比例较大时,应采取高定价策略,反之则应采取低定价策略。