Tilted objects EFI extracted at once by 3D output of the angular spectrum method

Since many optical imaging systems suffer from a limited depth of focus, three-dimensional (3D) objects, or even flat objects tilted with respect to the optical axis, are imaged with only a portion of them in focus. Typically, to overcome this problem, in-focus areas are extracted from different images taken at different depths. The in-focus regions are thus merged together to build the extended focus image (EFI). In this work, we propose a quasi-automatic method for the EFI construction of tilted objects, extracted at once by 3D output of the Angular Spectrum Method (ASM) from a single digitally recorded hologram. Results show that our method can be effectively used for the correction of the anamorphism due to the reconstruction on a tilted plane with respect to the hologram one.     

Phase reconstruction in lensless digital in-line holographic microscopy

The phase reconstruction in a digital in-line holographic microscopy is compared using two numerical reconstruction methods. The first method uses one Fourier transform and second one uses three Fourier transforms. It is shown that the latter method gives improved object phase reconstruction as compared to the former.     

Study on the simplified phase-shifting digital holographic microscopy

In this paper, a new simplified technique for effectively eliminating the zero order and the conjugate virtual image in digital holographic microcopy, which makes use of two-step phase-shifting method of just recording two holograms and an intensity image of object wave, is proposed. Meanwhile, combined with the principle of making full use of spatial bandwidth of the CCD sensor by in-line lens-less Fourier holographic recording geometry, the theory and experimental methods to increase the resolution of the reconstructed image in digital holography by using phase-shifting technique are detailedly analyzed. At end, the validity and availability of this technique has been demonstrated through the off-axis and in-line Fourier transform recording geometry. The study provides some theoretical and experimental guidance for the design and operation of a digital holographic microscopy system.     

Synthetic holography in microscopy: opportunities arising from advanced wavefront shaping

The advent of computer-generated or synthetic holography has created a wealth of possibilities for wavefront shaping in optics. We discuss the impact this has had on optical microscopy. Synthetic Holographic Microscopy utilises wavefront shaping by a computer-generated ‘hologram’ (CGH) to modify light on the illumination or the detection side, or both. This enables modifications of the general sample appearance concerning contrast, resolution and other aspects. Multiplexing CGHs can perform several tasks at once, for instance splitting the image into sub-images corresponding to different depths in the sample, or displaying differently contrasted images of the sample, e.g. bright field, darkfield or (spiral) phase contrast, in different sub-images. We give an overview of the options and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using programmable holographic elements inside an optical microscope.     

Synthetic aperture microscopy using off-axis illumination and polarization coding

A new method to improve the resolution of optical imaging systems beyond the classical Rayleigh resolution limit is presented. The technique relies on synthetic aperture generation in three stages. The first one (encoding stage) uses an illumination procedure that combines both on-axis and off-axis illumination beams with different polarization states onto the object. After the imaging system, a second stage (decoding stage) allows the recovering of the encoded spatial-frequency object information by means of an interferometric configuration based on the polarization coding carried out in the previous stage. Finally, a third stage (digital post-processing stage) is used to generate a synthetic aperture that is three times larger than the conventional aperture of the imaging system. The whole process allows us to obtain a superresolved image of the object. Experimental implementation of the approach for a commercial microscope objective is presented.     

Parallel-quadrature phase-shifting digital holographic microscopy using polarization beam splitter

We present a digital holography microscopy technique based on a parallel-quadrature phase-shifting method. Two π/2 phase-shifted holograms are recorded simultaneously using polarization phase-shifting principle, slightly off-axis recording geometry, and two identical CCD sensors. The parallel phase-shifting is realized by combining circularly polarized object beam with a 45° degree polarized reference beam through a polarizing beam splitter. DC term is eliminated by subtracting the two holograms from each other and the object information is reconstructed after selecting the frequency spectrum of the real image. Both amplitude and phase object reconstruction results are presented. Simultaneous recording eliminates phase errors caused by mechanical vibrations and air turbulences. The slightly off-axis recording geometry with phase-shifting allows a much larger dimension of the spatial filter for reconstruction of the object information. This leads to better reconstruction capability than traditional off-axis holography.     

An experimental investigation of three-dimensional particle aggregation using digital holographic microscopy

The tendency of particles to aggregate depends on particle-particle and particle-fluid interactions. These interactions can be characterized but it requires accurate 3D measurements of particle distributions. We introduce the application of an off-axis digital holographic microscopy for measuring distributions of dense micrometer (2 μm) particles in a liquid solution. We demonstrate that digital holographic microscopy is capable of recording the instantaneous 3D position of particles in a flow volume. A new reconstruction method that aids identification of particle images was used in this work. About 62% of the expected number of particles within the interrogated flow volume was detected. Based on the 3D position of individual particles, the tendency of particle to aggregate is investigated. Results show that relatively few particles (around 5–10 of a cohort of 1500) were aggregates. This number did not change significantly with time.     

Numerical reconstruction in in-line digital holography by translation of CCD position and gradient operator method

We propose an approach based on axial translation of a charge-coupled device (CCD) and gradient operator method for numerical reconstruction in in-line digital holography. The object wave in the hologram (or CCD) plane is determined using one position translation of CCD, and a phase-shifting device can be fully avoided. Gradient operator method is further applied to detect the focal plane of an object, and the object wave is reconstructed by an angular spectrum algorithm with the detected focal distance. The feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed method are demonstrated by numerical simulations.     

Objective evaluation of images reconstructed from digital in-line Fresnel holograms by using coherent background elimination

Quality of images reconstructed from in-line Fresnel holograms using elimination of a coherent background is quantitatively studied through computer simulation and experiment. The coherent background is digitally calculated by averaging an intensity of a recorded hologram. The results show that in spite of the fact that virtual image is still intact, the background elimination can resolve images with quality comparable to the phase-shifting technique.     

像面滤波技术在无透镜傅里叶变换数字全息中的应用

无透镜傅里叶变换数字全息波前重建主要采用全息图的一次快速傅里叶变换方法,重建图像不能充分占有重建平面.本文基于像平面滤波技术,提出对物体局部区域光波场进行放大重建并让重建图像布满重建平面的方法,给出具有精细结构物体的数字全息波前重建实例.此外,将数字全息光波场重建视为具有方形出射光瞳的光学系统的相干光成像过程,导出了物体放大图像的分辨率与光学系统相关参量的关系,并通过实验给予证明.     

Design of the spatial filter window for digital holographic convolution reconstruction of object beam field

In the convolution reconstruction process of digital holographic object beam field, the object beam fields with different magnifications can be obtained when the reconstructing beams are spherical waves with different wave curvature radii. This paper presents a theoretical and experimental discussion on the useful spatial frequency spectrum of the hologram numerically illuminated by the spherical wave. The result shows that there would be an image in the spatial frequency spectrum of digital hologram, which is completely the same as the object, if the wave surface radius of the spherical wave is equal to the distance from the object to the CCD sensor. Taking this image as a reference and designing a filter, the position of the reconstructed images with different magnifications can be predicted correctly in the reconstructed plane. Additionally, since the spectrum distribution of zero-order diffraction can be forecasted accurately in theory, its contribution can be effectively eliminated through changing the spatial filter shape; then a reconstructed object field containing more high-frequency information can be obtained.     

像面滤波技术在无透镜傅里叶变换数字全息中的应用

无透镜傅里叶变换数字全息波前重建主要采用全息图的一次快速傅里叶变换方法,重建图像不能充分占有重建平面.本文基于像平面滤波技术,提出对物体局部区域光波场进行放大重建并让重建图像布满重建平面的方法,给出具有精细结构物体的数字全息波前重建实例.此外,将数字全息光波场重建视为具有方形出射光瞳的光学系统的相干光成像过程,导出了物体放大图像的分辨率与光学系统相关参量的关系,并通过实验给予证明.     

Reconstruction of digital hologram of small particles on arbitrarily tilted plane using digital holography

Digital holographic off-axis geometry is presented for the reconstruction of the digital hologram of small particles in an arbitrarily tilted plane. A single hologram is sufficient to obtain a well focused clear image. We can't obtain clear images of small particles in the case of plane tilted to the detector plane by ordinary reconstruction method because of the rotation of the hologram plane. Rotational transformation based on coordinate rotation in Fourier space makes it possible to reconstruct holographic images on any plane in the object space. The reconstruction of digital hologram is based on the plane wave expansion of the diffracted wave fields, using Fourier optics and the two-axis rotation of the wave vectors. With this method, the object-to-hologram distance can be any small distance because the minimum distance requirement does not apply.     

Wave front reconstruction of Fresnel off-axis holograms with compensation of aberrations by means of phase-shifting digital holography

Off-axis holograms recorded with a CCD camera are numerically reconstructed in amplitude by calculating through the Fresnel–Kirchhoff integral. A phase-shifting Mach–Zehnder interferometer is used for recording four-quadrature phase-shifted off-axis holograms. The basic principle of this technique and its experimental verification are described. We show that the application of this algorithm allows for the suppression of the zero order of diffraction and of the twin image and that the contrast of the reconstructed images can be further enhanced by digital compensation of the aberrations introduced by the holographic recording system     

Reduction of speckle noise in digital holography by using digital image processing

A fundamental problem in optical and digital holography is the presence of speckle noise in the reconstruction process. Many approaches have been carried out in order to overcome such a problem ranging from modifying the spatial coherence of the illumination (optical techniques) to image processing techniques (digital techniques). This work shows the merged use of digital image processing techniques in order to reduce the speckle noise in digital reconstruction of optically recorded Fresnel's holograms. The proposed filtering techniques are illustrated with experimental results.     

3D shape reconstruction of teeth by shadow speckle correlation method

This paper presents a new method for 3D shape reconstruction in computer-aided dental prosthetics. A specklegram is projected onto the tooth to be measured. This shadow speckle image is recorded and then processed by a digital image correlation method, which enables the computation of 2D shapes based on the similar principle of shadow moiré method. By repeating the procedure for all the sides, i.e., one crown and several side surfaces, local 2D shapes can be measured precisely. Afterwards, these local 2D profiles are merged to form a 3D model, during which certain constraints such as the widths along perpendicular directions are introduced to guide the process. As the height information within an entire image field is recorded instantly, it has the potential to be employed in an intra-oral environment, which would make the patient feel more comfortable during the restoration process. In vitro experiments were carried out on gypsum teeth models and the results proved the effectiveness of the proposed method.     

Optical encryption of gray-level image using on-axis and 2-f digital holography with two-step phase-shifting method

In this paper we propose an encryption/decryption technique of gray-level image information using an on-axis 2-f digital holographic optical encrypting system with two-step phase-shifting method. This technique reduces the number of holograms in phase-shifting digital holography and minimizes the setup of the encryption system more than multistep phase-shifting technique. We are able to get the complete decrypted image by controlling the K-ratio which is defined as the reference beam intensity versus the object beam intensity. We remove the DC-term of the phase-shifting digital hologram to reconstruct and decrypt the original image information. Simulation results show that the proposed method can be used for encryption and decryption of a 256 gray-level image. Also, the result shows some errors of the decrypted image according to K-ratio.     

全息照相实像的优化拍摄与再现

从全息照相的基本理论出发,分析了全息照相实像的产生条件,提出了用正入射平行光拍摄和再现全息照相实像的方案.实验表明,用正入射平行光拍摄和再现全息实像能得到满意的效果.在不同的散射介质中进行了全息实像的再现实验,确定了一种符合要求的再现介质.     

Three-dimensional holographic reconstruction of two-dimensional image information from serial sections and its applications in biomedicine

An experimental study to synthesize holographically two-dimensional projections of serial sections at various depths into three-dimensional images is described. The effects caused by the position, size and resolution of virtual images during reconstruction are analysed, and the advantages and limitations of this method are discussed. An application of this experimental method — the three-dimensional reconstruction of serial sections of a newt embryo — is presented.     

一种改进型视角投影图像彩色计算全息术的三维重构算法

本文提出了一种利用三维景物的二维视角投影图像合成计算全息图,并重构出彩色再现三维影像的方法.该方法基于利用视角投影图像获取景物的三维傅里叶频谱的理论,采用电荷耦合器件记录三维景物在白光照明条件下横、纵两正交方向的一系列视角投影图像,并利用这些视角投影图像合成计算全息图,从而重构出三维再现像.通过采用在频谱面上的容余采样方法,提高了图像频谱信息的利用率,通过实验论证,证明了该方法的可行性.利用该方法使得视角投影图像的记录过程更加简单,节省了采样时间,提高了程序运行速度|能够在利用同等数量的视角投影图像的条件下,提高合成全息图的质量,使得重构的彩色再现三维影像更加清晰.