Theoretical study on ionic liquids based on DBUH+: Molecular engineering and hydrogen bond evaluation

The new generation of the ionic liquids (ILs) based on 1,8-diazobicylo [5,4,0] undec-7-ene (DBU) are applied as the solvent in organic reactions. In this work, by using a theoretical procedure, the most probable interactions between the ion pairs of DBUH⁺ based ILs, including 10 functionalized imidazole anions were investigated. For this purpose, the electrostatic potential surfaces were analyzed to detect the most probable interaction sites of DBUH⁺. On the basis of the obtained results, hydrogen bond formation between the anions and DBUH⁺ is influenced by the electronic effect of the substituted functional groups. This means that electron donating groups, such as phenyl has a stabilizing effect on the ion pairs, while electron-withdrawing groups, such as nitro, induces a destabilizing effect. These behaviors are described based on the interaction energy values (ΔE_int). To investigate the dispersion interaction effects in ILs formation, M06-2X-D3 functional was applied in energy analysis. The solvent reaction field was investigated by the polarizable continuum model in ethanol and chloroform as the solvent. The results showed that ethanol has a greater effect on the interaction energy of the ILs. Finally, to have a comprehensive understanding of the charge transfer effect on the stability of the studied ILs and to characterize the most probable interactions, natural bond orbital and quantum theory of atoms in molecules analyses were applied and the obtained results were analyzed.     

Effects of solvent on weak halogen bonds: Density functional theory calculations

In recent years, many applications of solution‐phase halogen bonding in anion recognition, catalysis, and pseudorotaxane formation have been reported. Moreover, a number of thermodynamic data of halogen bonding interactions in organic solution are now available. To obtain detailed information of the influence of the surrounding medium on weak halogen bonds, a series of dimeric complexes of halobenzene (PhX) with three electron donors (H₂O, HCHO, and NH₃) were investigated by means of DFT/PBE calculations in this work. The PCM implicit solvation approach was utilized to include the effects of three solvents (cyclohexane, chloroform, and water) as representatives for a wide range of dielectric constant. In some cases, halogen‐bond distances are shown to shorten in solution, accompanied by concomitant elongation of the C? X bonds. For the remaining systems, the intermolecular distances tend to increase or remain almost unchanged under solvent effects. In general, the solvent has a slight destabilizing effect on weak halogen bonds; the strength order of halogen bonds observed in vacuum remains unchanged in liquid phases. Particularly, the interaction strength attenuates in the order I > Br > Cl in solution, consistent with the experimental measurements of weak halogen bond door abilities. The similarities between halogen and hydrogen bonding in solution were also elucidated. The results presented herein would be very useful in future applications of halogen bonding in molecular recognition and medicinal chemistry. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Int J Quantum Chem, 2012     

Halogen bonding in mono- and dihydrated halobenzene

Density functional theory calculations were performed on halogen-bonded and hydrogen-bonded systems consisting of a halobenzene (XPh; X = F, Cl, Br, I, and At) and one or two water molecules, using the M06-2X density functional with the 6-31+G(d) (for C, H, F, Cl, and Br) and aug-cc-pVDZ-PP (for I, At) basis sets. The counterpoise procedure was performed to counteract the effect of basis set superposition error. The results show halogen bonds form in the XPh-H₂O system when X > Cl. There is a trend toward stronger halogen bonding as the halogen group is descended, as assessed by interaction energy and X•••O_w internuclear separation (where O_w is the water oxygen). For all XPh-H₂O systems hydrogen-bonded systems exist, containing a combination of CH•••O_w and O_wH_w•••X hydrogen bonds. For all systems except X = At the X•••H_w hydrogen-bonding interaction is stronger than the X•••O_w halogen bond. In the XPh-(H₂O)₂ system halogen bonds form only for X > Br. The two water molecules prefer to form a water dimer, either located around the C H bond (for X = Br, At, and I) or located above the benzene ring (for all halogens). Thus, even in the absence of competing strong interactions, halogen bonds may not form for the lighter halogens due to (1) competition from cooperative weak interactions such as C H•••O and OH•••X hydrogen bonds, or (2) if the formation of the halogen bond would preclude the formation of a water dimer. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Polysulfonylamine. CLXXXIV. Kristallstrukturen molekularer Triphenylphosphangold(I)‐di(4‐X‐benzolsulfonyl)‐amide: Isomorphie und dichte Packung (X = Me,F, Cl,NO2) vs. struktursteuernde Halogenbrücken C–X···Au/O (X = Br,I)

Polysulfonylamines. CLXXXIV. Crystal Structures of Molecular Triphenylphosphanegold(I) Di(4‐X‐benzenesulfonyl)amides: Isomorphism and Close Packing (X = Me, F, Cl, NO₂) vs. Structure‐Determining C–X···Au/O Halogen Bonds (X = Br, I) In order to study the structure‐determining influence that halogen bonding can exert during the course of crystallization, solid‐state structures are compared for two previously reported and four new molecular gold(I) complexes of the type Ph₃P–Au–N(SO₂–C₆H₄–4‐X)₂, each featuring linear P,N coordination at gold and two phenyl rings with varying p‐substituents X = Me, F, Cl, NO₂, Br or I. The compounds were synthesized by reactions of Ph₃PAuX (X = Cl or I) with the corresponding silver di(arenesulfonyl)amides, crystallized from dichloromethane, and characterized by low‐temperature X‐ray diffraction. The Me, F, Cl and NO₂ congeners are isomorphic and crystallize without solvent inclusion in the chiral orthorhombic space group P2₁2₁2₁ (Z′ = 1). These structures are governed by isotropic close packing via three‐dimensional 2₁ symmetry, incidentally supported by an invariant set of C–H···O=S hydrogen bonds, CH/π interactions and π/π stackings of aromatic rings; in particular, the hard halogen atoms of the fluoro and the chloro homologues are not involved in X···Au, X···O or X···X interactions. The higher homologues, with soft halogen atoms, were obtained as a dichloromethane hemisolvate for X = Br and a corresponding monosolvate for X = I, each triclinic in the centrosymmetric space group (Z′ = 1). Here, the primary structural effect is implemented by infinite chains in which translation‐related molecules are connected for the bromo compound by a bifurcated Au···Br(2)···O=S interaction, for the iodo congener by an equivalent Au···I(2)···O=S interaction and a short halogen bond C–I(1)···O=S. The latter bond is stronger than a similar C–Br···O=S interaction and induces a conformational adjustment of the (CSO₂)₂N group from the normal twofold symmetry in the bromo compound to an energetically unfavourable asymmetric form in the iodo homologue. In both cases, pairs of antiparallel molecular catemers are associated into strands via sixfold phenyl embraces, the strands are stacked to form layers, the solvent molecules are intercalated between adjacent layers, and the crystal packings are reinforced by a number of C–H···O=S hydrogen bonds and interactions of aromatic rings.     

The π-hole tetrel bond between X2TO and CO2: Substituent effects and its potential adsorptivity for CO2

Quantum chemical calculations are applied to study the complexes between X₂TO (X = H, F, Cl, Br, CH₃; T = C, Si, Ge, Sn) and CO₂. The carbon atom of CO₂ as a Lewis acid participates in the C···O carbon bond, whereas its oxygen atom as a base engages in the O···T tetrel bond with X₂TO. Most of complexes are stabilized by a combination of both C···O and O···T interactions. The interaction energy increases in the T = C < Ge < Sn < Si sequence for most complexes. Both the electron-withdrawing halogen group and the electron-donating methyl group increase the interaction energy, up to 51 kJ/mol in F₂SiO···CO₂. One F₂SiO molecule can bind with different numbers of CO₂ molecules (1–4); as the number of CO₂ molecules increases, the average interaction energy for each CO₂ decreases and each CO₂ molecule can contribute with at least 27 kJ/mol. Therefore, silicon-containing molecules are good absorbents for CO₂.     

Competition between hydrogen and halogen bonding in halogenated 1‐methyluracil: Water systems

The competition between hydrogen‐ and halogen‐bonding interactions in complexes of 5‐halogenated 1‐methyluracil (XmU; X = F, Cl, Br, I, or At) with one or two water molecules in the binding region between C5‐X and C4?O4 is investigated with M06‐2X/6‐31+G(d). In the singly‐hydrated systems, the water molecule forms a hydrogen bond with C4?O4 for all halogens, whereas structures with a halogen bond between the water oxygen and C5‐X exist only for X = Br, I, and At. Structures with two waters forming a bridge between C4?O and C5‐X (through hydrogen‐ and halogen‐bonding interactions) exist for all halogens except F. The absence of a halogen‐bonded structure in singly‐hydrated ClmU is therefore attributed to the competing hydrogen‐bonding interaction with C4?O4. The halogen‐bond angle in the doubly‐hydrated structures (150–160°) is far from the expected linearity of halogen bonds, indicating that significantly non‐linear halogen bonds may exist in complex environments with competing interactions. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Halogen Bonding or Hydrogen Bonding between 2,2,6,6-Tetramethyl-piperidine-noxyl Radical and Trihalomethanes CHX3 (X=Cl,Br, I)

The halogen and hydrogen bonding complexes between 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-noxyl and trihalomethanes (CHX₃, X=Cl, Br, I) are simulated by computational quantum chem-istry. The molecular electrostatic potentials, geometrical parameters and interaction energy of halogen and hydrogen bonding complexes combined with natural bond orbital analysis are obtained. The results indicate that both halogen and hydrogen bonding interactions obey the order Cl相似文献   

Thermo- and Photocatalytic Activation of CO2 in Ionic Liquids Nanodomains

Ionic liquids (ILs) are considered to be potential material devices for CO₂ capturing and conversion to energy-adducts. They form a cage (confined-space) around the catalyst providing an ionic nano-container environment which serves as physical-chemical barrier that selectively controls the diffusion of reactants, intermediates, and products to the catalytic active sites via their hydrophobicity and contact ion pairs. Hence, the electronic properties of the catalysts in ILs can be tuned by the proper choice of the IL-cations and anions that strongly influence the residence time/diffusion of the reactants, intermediates, and products in the nano-environment. On the other hand, ILs provide driving force towards photocatalytic redox process to increase the CO₂ photoreduction. By combining ILs with the semiconductor, unique solid semiconductor-liquid commodities are generated that can lower the CO₂ activation energy barrier by modulating the electronic properties of the semiconductor surface. This mini-review provides a brief overview of the recent advances in IL assisted thermal conversion of CO₂ to hydrocarbons, formic acid, methanol, dimethyl carbonate, and cyclic carbonates as well as its photo-conversion to solar fuels.     

Evidence of Amine–CO2 Interactions in Two Pillared‐Layer MOFs Probed by X‐ray Crystallography

Two pillared‐layer metal–organic frameworks (MOFs; PMOF‐55 and NH₂‐PMOF‐55) based on 1,2,4‐triazole and terephthalic acid (bdc)/NH₂‐bdc ligands were assembled and display framework stabilities, to a certain degree, in both acid/alkaline solutions and toward water. They exhibit high CO₂ uptakes and selective CO₂/N₂ adsorption capacities, with CO₂/N₂ selectivity in the range of 24–27, as calculated by the ideal adsorbed solution theory method. More remarkably, the site and interactions between the host network and the CO₂ molecules were investigated by single‐crystal X‐ray diffraction, which showed that the main interaction between the CO₂ molecules and PMOF‐55 is due to multipoint supramolecular interactions of C?H???O, C???O, and O???O. Amino functional groups were shown to enhance the CO₂ adsorption and identified as strong adsorption sites for CO₂ by X‐ray crystallography.     

The First Use of a ReX5 Synthon to Modulate FeIII Spin Crossover via Supramolecular Halogen⋅⋅⋅Halogen Interactions

We have added the {Re^IVX₅}⁻ (X=Br, Cl) synthon to a pocket-based ligand to provide supramolecular design using halogen⋅⋅⋅halogen interactions within an Fe^III system that has the potential to undergo spin crossover (SCO). By removing the solvent from the crystal lattice, we “switch on” halogen⋅⋅⋅halogen interactions between neighboring molecules, providing a supramolecular cooperative pathway for SCO. Furthermore, changes to the halogen-based interaction allow us to modify the temperature and nature of the SCO event.     

Detection of halogen bond formation by correlation of proton solvent shifts. 1. Haloforms in n-electron donor solvents

The solvent shifts of haloformic protons, (Cl₃CH, Br₃CH, I₃CH), have been measured in 24 n-electron donor solvents consisting of halogenated hydrocarbons, esters, ketones, ethers and amines. Deviations of Δ_Br and Δ₁ from linear dependence with Δ_Cl are indicative of the presence of halogen bond formation competitive with hydrogen bonding interactions. Bromoform interacts predominantly by hydrogen bonding, halogen bonding being detected to a small extent in chlorinated hydrocarbons and amines. Iodoform shows halogen bonding interactions which increase in relative importance to hydrogen bonding with solvent basicity. Halogen bonding is predominant for solutions of iodoform in amines.     

Reversible Hydrophobic–Hydrophilic Transition of Ionic Liquids Driven by Carbon Dioxide

Ionic liquids (ILs) with a reversible hydrophobic–hydrophilic transition were developed, and they exhibited unique phase behavior with H₂O: monophase in the presence of CO₂, but biphase upon removal of CO₂ at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Thus, coupling of reaction, separation, and recovery steps in sustainable chemical processes could be realized by a reversible liquid–liquid phase transition of such IL‐H₂O mixtures. Spectroscopic investigations and DFT calculations showed that the mechanism behind hydrophobic–hydrophilic transition involved reversible reaction of CO₂ with anion of the ILs and formation of hydrophilic ammonium salts. These unique IL‐H₂O systems were successfully utilized for facile one‐step synthesis of Au porous films by bubbling CO₂ under ambient conditions. The Au porous films and the ILs were then separated simultaneously from aqueous solutions by bubbling N₂, and recovered ILs could be directly reused in the next process.     

Structural parameters of concentrated aqueous solutions of LiCl under extreme conditions,as calculated by the method of integral equations. Effect of temperature

Peculiarities of structure formation of aqueous LiCl solutions at different salt : water molar ratios (LiCl : n H₂O, n = 3.15, 8.05, 14.90) under conditions of isobaric heating (p = 100 bar, T = 298, 323—523 K, T = 50 K) were studied by the method of integral equations. Heating of LiCl : 14.90H₂O solution was found to lead to disappearance of tetrahedral ordering of solvent molecules, appreciable weakening of the coordination abilities of both ions, and to an increase of the number of contact ion pairs and a decrease of the number of solvent-separated ion pairs. For the LiCl : 8.05H₂O system, the tetrahedral structure of the solvent disappears at a lower temperature and heating has a less pronounced effect on the coordination and associative abilities of the ions. In the LiCl : 3.15H₂O solution, tetrahedral ordering of the solvent molecules disappears at 298 K and the number of contact ion pairs decreases as temperature increases. Other structural changes in this system upon heating are similar to those found for the LiCl : 14.90H₂O and LiCl : 8.05H₂O solutions.     

Ion-pair recognition based on halogen bonding: a case of the crown-ether receptor with iodo-trizole moiety

The development of halogen-bond-based ditopic receptors capable of binding simultaneously both a cation and an anion has attracted recent research interest. In this work, the crown-ether receptor 1, which consists of an iodo-trizole moiety for anion recognition through halogen bonding and a Lewis-basic center for cation binding, was investigated using density functional theory calculations. The structural and energetic features for the complexes of 1 with single cations, single halide anions, and ion pairs were explored. Intermolecular interactions in these complexes were systematically analyzed by the atoms in molecules and noncovalent interaction index methods. The presence of the coordinated cation significantly increases the anion-binding affinity, while the binding of halide anions has a slight influence on the cation-binding affinity. Anti-cooperative effects were found in the ion-pair recognition of 1, due to the strong attraction between the two counterions in the complexes. The solvent weakens the interaction strength considerably, and anti-cooperativity becomes very small in solvent. The results reported in this work are of fundamental importance in the design of ion-pair receptors based on halogen bonding.     

“Through-Space” Relativistic Effects on NMR Chemical Shifts of Pyridinium Halide Ionic Liquids

We have investigated, using two-component relativistic density functional theory (DFT) at ZORA-SO-BP86 and ZORA-SO-PBE0 level, the occurrence of relativistic effects on the ¹H, ¹³C, and ¹⁵N NMR chemical shifts of 1-methylpyridinium halides [MP][X] and 1-butyl-3-methylpyridinium trihalides [BMP][X₃] ionic liquids (ILs) (X=Cl, Br, I) as a result of a non-covalent interaction with the heavy anions. Our results indicate a sizeable deshielding effect in ion pairs when the anion is I⁻ and I₃⁻. A smaller, though nonzero, effect is observed also with bromine while chlorine based anions do not produce an appreciable relativistic shift. The chemical shift of the carbon atoms of the aromatic ring shows an inverse halogen dependence that has been rationalized based on the little C-2s orbital contribution to the σ-type interaction between the cation and anion. This is the first detailed account and systematic theoretical investigation of a relativistic heavy atom effect on the NMR chemical shifts of light atoms in the absence of covalent bonds. Our work paves the way and suggests the direction for an experimental investigation of such elusive signatures of ion pairing in ILs.     

Halogen bonding: a theoretical study based on atomic multipoles derived from quantum theory of atoms in molecules

Atomic multipole moments derived from quantum theory of atoms in molecules are used to study halogen bonds in dihalogens (with general formula YX, in which X refers to the halogen directly interacted with the Lewis base) and some molecules containing C–X group. Multipole expansion is used to calculate the electrostatic potential in a vicinity of halogen atom (which is involved in halogen bonding) in terms of atomic monopole, dipole, and quadrupole moments. In all the cases, the zz component of atomic traceless quadrupole moments (where z axis taken along Y–X or C–X bonds) of the halogens plays a stabilizing role in halogen bond formation. The effects of atomic monopole and dipole moments on the formation of a halogen bond in YX molecules depend on Y and X atoms. In Br₂ and Cl₂, the monopole moment of halogens is zero and has no contribution in electrostatic potential and hence in halogen bonding, while in ClBr, FBr, and FCl it is positive and therefore stabilize the halogen bonds. On the other hand, the negative sign of dipole moment of X in all the YX molecules weakens the corresponding halogen bonds. In the C–X-containing molecules, monopole and dipole moments of X atom are negative and consequently destabilize the halogen bonds. So, in these molecules the quadrupole moment of X atom is the only electrostatic term which strengthens the halogen bonds. In addition, we found good linear correlations between halogen bonds strength and electrostatic potentials calculated from multipole expansion.     

Intramolecular halogen bonds in 1,2-aryldiyne molecules: a theoretical study

Intramolecular halogen bonds have been the subject of several current experimental and theoretical studies. In this work, intramolecular halogen bonds in a series of 1,2-aryldiyne molecules were investigated using density functional theory calculations at the M06-2x level of theory. For comparison, some dimeric complexes between halogenated aryldiynes and quinolinyl compounds were also considered. The calculated interatomic distances and interaction angles of intramolecular halogen bonds compare fairly well with those determined experimentally, and the triangle motifs retain almost perfectly planar in all the studied molecules. Many of the well-known properties of conventional halogen bonds are reproduced in intramolecular halogen bonds: the interaction strength tends to increase with the enlargement of the atomic radius of halogens (I > Br > Cl); the attachment of electron-withdrawing moieties to halogens leads to much stronger intramolecular halogen bonds; the X···N (quinolinyl) interactions are stronger than the X···O (carbonyl) halogen bonds. On the basis of the shorter interatomic distances and the larger values of electron densities at the bond critical points, intramolecular halogen bonds become stronger in strength than corresponding intermolecular halogen bonds. However, these interactions have similar structural, energetic, atoms in molecules (AIM), and noncovalent interaction index (NCI) characteristics to traditional halogen bonds. Therefore, these interactions can be recognized as halogen bonds that are primarily electrostatic in nature. Particularly, the formation of intramolecular halogen bonds gives rise to the essential coplanarity of the molecules, whereas the two subunits in the dimeric complexes deviate from planarity to a large degree. In addition, a small number of crystal structures containing intramolecular halogen bonds were retrieved from the Cambridge Structural Database (CSD), to provide more insights into these interactions in crystals. This work not only will extend the knowledge of noncovalent interactions involving halogens as electrophilic centers but also could be very useful in molecular design and synthetic chemistry.     

Theoretical enthalpies of formation and structural characterisation of halogenated nitromethanes and isomeric halomethyl nitrites

The structural, energetic, and thermochemical properties of a number of halogenated nitromethanes, CH _n X_3?n NO₂, and the isomeric nitrites, CH _n X_3?n ONO, are investigated, using theoretical ab initio and density functional theory (DFT) electronic structure methods. Analysis of the results and comparison with the maternal species, nitromethane, CH₃NO₂, and methyl nitrite, CH₃ONO, reveal strong dependence of the molecular properties on the halogen induction effect. Opposite trends are obtained in the C??N and C??O bond dissociation energies (BDE) upon halogenation and higher stabilities are calculated for the trans-nitrite isomers, in contrast with the plain alkyl families where the nitroalkanes are the most stable species. Formation enthalpies, ??H _f ^? , at 298 K are calculated for all halogenated isomers.     

CH4, CO2和H2O在非金属原子修饰石墨烯表面的吸附

煤层气(矿井瓦斯)是一种有望替代传统化石燃料，如煤、石油和天然气的非常规气体. 作为可得的清洁能源，它的利用被认为是节能和经济的选择. 在本工作中，非金属原子X(X=H，O，N，S，P，Si，F，Cl)修饰的石墨烯(Gr)被用来代表具有结构异性的煤表面模型. 通过密度泛函理论系统地研究了煤层气组分Y(Y=CH₄，CO₂，H₂O)在非金属原子修饰石墨烯上的吸附作用. 结果表明Y在非金属原子修饰石墨烯上的吸附均为物理吸附. 态密度和差分电荷密度共同表明了这种弱的相互作用.其中，H和Cl对CH₄的作用较大； N、O、F、Cl对CO₂的作用较强； N，Cl对H₂O的影响不容忽视. 总的来说，吸附能大小依次为：H₂O>CO₂>CH₄. 因此，在CH₄富集的煤层里注入H₂O或CO₂可以与CH₄形成竞争吸附，进而提高煤层气采收率. 本工作提供了在分子水平下煤层气与非金属原子修饰石墨烯之间的相互作用的详情，并为煤层瓦斯的开采与分离提供了有用的信息.     

CH4, CO2和H2O在非金属原子修饰石墨烯表面的吸附

煤层气(矿井瓦斯)是一种有望替代传统化石燃料，如煤、石油和天然气的非常规气体. 作为可得的清洁能源，它的利用被认为是节能和经济的选择. 在本工作中，非金属原子X(X=H，O，N，S，P，Si，F，Cl)修饰的石墨烯(Gr)被用来代表具有结构异性的煤表面模型. 通过密度泛函理论系统地研究了煤层气组分Y(Y=CH₄，CO₂，H₂O)在非金属原子修饰石墨烯上的吸附作用. 结果表明Y在非金属原子修饰石墨烯上的吸附均为物理吸附. 态密度和差分电荷密度共同表明了这种弱的相互作用.其中，H和Cl对CH₄的作用较大； N、O、F、Cl对CO₂的作用较强； N，Cl对H₂O的影响不容忽视. 总的来说，吸附能大小依次为：H₂O>CO₂>CH₄. 因此，在CH₄富集的煤层里注入H₂O或CO₂可以与CH₄形成竞争吸附，进而提高煤层气采收率. 本工作提供了在分子水平下煤层气与非金属原子修饰石墨烯之间的相互作用的详情，并为煤层瓦斯的开采与分离提供了有用的信息.