An efficient synthesis of 2-amino alcohols by silica gel catalysed opening of epoxide rings by amines

Silica gel (60-120 mesh) efficiently catalyses the opening of epoxide rings by amines at rt under solvent-free conditions providing an easy method for the synthesis of 2-amino alcohols. Aromatic and aliphatic amines react with cyclohexene oxide with exclusive formation of the trans-2-aryl/alkylaminocyclohexanols in high yields. A complementary regioselectivity is exhibited by aromatic and aliphatic amines during the reaction with styrene oxide. The epoxide ring of non-styrenoidal unsymmetrical alkene oxide undergoes selective nucleophilic attack at the sterically less hindered carbon by aniline.     

Sulfamic acid catalyzed ring opening of epoxides with amines under solvent-free conditions

Sulfamic acid (SA) catalyses the nucleophilic opening of epoxide rings by amines leading to the efficient synthesis of ß-amino alcohols. The reaction works well with aromatic and aliphatic amines in short reaction times and in the absence of solvent. Exclusive trans stereoselectivity is observed for the ring opening of cyclohexene oxide. This method exhibits excellent regioselectivity for preferential nucleophilic attack at the less hindered position during the reaction with unsymmetrical epoxides.     

ZrCl4 as a new and efficient catalyst for the opening of epoxide rings by amines

Zirconium(IV) chloride catalyses the nucleophilic opening of epoxide rings by amines leading to the efficient synthesis of β-amino alcohols. The reaction works well with aromatic and aliphatic amines in short times at room temperature in the absence of solvent. Exclusive trans stereoselectivity is observed for cyclic epoxides. Aromatic amines exhibit excellent regioselectivity for preferential nucleophilic attack at the sterically less hindered position during the reaction with unsymmetrical epoxides. However, in case of styrene oxide, selective formation of the benzylic amine was observed during the reactions with aromatic amines.     

Zinc(II) perchlorate hexahydrate catalyzed opening of epoxide ring by amines: applications to synthesis of (RS)/(R)-propranolols and (RS)/(R)/(S)-naftopidils

Commercially available zinc(II) perchlorate hexahydrate [Zn(ClO4)2.6H2O] was found to be a new and highly efficient catalyst for opening of epoxide rings by amines affording 2-amino alcohols in high yields under solvent-free conditions and with excellent chemo-, regio-, and stereoselectivities. For unsymmetrical epoxides, the regioselectivity was influenced by the electronic and steric factors associated with the epoxides and the amines. A complementarity in the regioselectivity was observed during the reaction of styrene oxide with aromatic and aliphatic amines: aromatic amines provided amino alcohols from nucleophilic attack at the benzylic carbon as major products whereas aliphatic amines resulted in formation of the amino alcohols through reaction at the terminal carbon atom of the epoxide ring as the major/sole products. Reaction of aniline with various glycidic ethers gave the amino alcohols by regioselective nucleophilic attack at the terminal carbon atom of the epoxide ring as the only/major product. Zinc(II) perchlorate hexahydrate was found to be the best catalyst compared to other metal perchlorates. The counteranion modulated the catalytic property of the various Zn(II) compounds that followed the order Zn(ClO4)2.(6)H2O>Zn(BF4)2 approximately Zn(OTf)2>ZnI2>ZnBr2>ZnCl2>Zn(OAc)2>Zn(CO3)2 in parallelism with the acidic strength of the corresponding protic acids (except for TfOH). The applicability of the methodology was demonstrated by the synthesis of cardiovascular drugs propranolol and naftopidil as racemates and optically active enantiomers.     

Unusual regioselectivity in the opening of epoxides by carboxylic acid enediolates

Addition of carboxylic acid dianions appears to be a potential alternative to the use of aluminium enolates for nucleophilic ring opening of epoxides. These conditions require the use of a sub-stoichiometric amount of amine (10% mol) for dianion generation and the previous activation of the epoxide with LiCl. Yields are good, with high regioselectivity, but the use of styrene oxide led, unexpectedly, to a mixture resulting from the attack on both the primary and secondary carbon atoms. Generally, a low diastereoselectivity is seen on attack at the primary center, however only one diastereoisomer was obtained from attack to the secondary carbon of the styrene oxide.     

A Regio-and Stereoselective Synthesis of β-Amino Alcohols

The regio-and stereoselective ring opening of epoxide with aromatic amines catalyzed by samarium trichloride and the enantioselective ring opening of cyclohexene oxide with aniline catalyzed by lanthanide complexes were studied.     

Enantioselective ring opening of meso-epoxides by aromatic amines catalyzed by lanthanide iodo binaphtholates

[reaction: see text] Lanthanide iodo binaphtholates are efficient enantioselective catalysts for the ring opening of meso-epoxides by various aromatic amines. The study of the influence of temperature on the ring opening of cyclohexene oxide by o-anisidine catalyzed by the samarium complex shows an isoinversion effect with the maximum enantiomeric excess at -40 degrees C. Reactions of aniline, o-anisidine, or p-anisidine with five- or six-membered ring epoxides at this temperature allow the preparation of beta-amino alcohols with enantiomeric excesses up to 93%.     

2-Amino homopropargyl alcohols from the highly regioselective Ag2CO3-catalyzed nucleophilic openings of alkynyl epoxides by amines

The nucleophilic ring opening of propargyl epoxides by amines based on a silver catalyst is presented. The reaction takes place under mild conditions and features a high regioselectivity to provide an effective method for the synthesis of 2-amino homopropargyl alcohols in moderate to high yields.     

Differentiation of Epoxide Enantiomers in the Confined Spaces of an Homochiral Cu(II) Metal-Organic Framework by Kinetic Resolution

TAMOF-1 , a homochiral metal-organic framework (MOF) constructed from an amino acid derivative and Cu(II), was investigated as a heterogeneous catalyst in kinetic resolutions involving the ring opening of styrene oxide with a set of anilines. The branched products generated from the ring opening of styrene oxide with anilines and the unreacted epoxide were obtained with moderately high enantiomeric excesses. The linear product arising from the attack on the non-benzylic position of styrene oxide underwent a second kinetic resolution by reacting with the epoxide, resulting in an amplification of its final enantiomeric excess and a concomitant formation of an array of isomeric aminodiols. Computational studies confirmed the experimental results, providing a deep understanding of the whole process involving the two successive kinetic resolutions. Furthermore, TAMOF-1 activity was conserved after several catalytic cycles. The ring opening of a meso-epoxide with aniline catalyzed by TAMOF-1 was also studied and moderate enantioselectivities were obtained.     

Cobalt(III)‐complex‐mediated terpolymerization of CO2, styrene oxide,and epoxides with an electron‐donating group

Terpolymerizations of CO₂, styrene oxide (SO), and epoxides with an electron‐donating group such as propylene oxide (PO) or cyclohexene oxide (CHO) were carried out by using Co(III)–salen complexes in the presence of an intra‐ or intermolecular nucleophilic cocatalyst. The resultant terpolymers have only one thermolysis peak and one glass transition temperature (T_g), which can be easily adjusted by controlling the proportion of styrene carbonate linkages. During the CO₂/SO/PO terpolymerization, the monomer reactivity ratios (r_SO = 0.18 and r_PO = 2.25) evaluated by Fineman–Ross plot indicates a random distribution of the two kinds of carbonate units in the resultant polymer. Contrarily, the monomer reactivity ratios were found to be r_SO = 0.48 and r_CHO = 0.79 in the CO₂/SO/CHO terpolymerization, indicating that an alternating nature of the two different carbonate units predominantly exists in the resultant polycarbonate. The regioselective ring opening of SO has a significant effect on the reactivities of both SO and CHO during the terpolymerization with CO₂. The matched reactivity is contributed to the enhanced regioselective ring opening of SO, caused by the attack of the dissociating polymer carboxylate anion, bearing a cyclohexene carbonate end unit. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem, 2013     

Zinc tetrafluoroborate hydrate as a mild catalyst for epoxide ring opening with amines: scope and limitations of metal tetrafluoroborates and applications in the synthesis of antihypertensive drugs (RS)/(R)/(S)-metoprolols

The scope and limitations of metal tetrafluoroborates have been studied for epoxide ring-opening reaction with amines, and Zn(BF(4))(2)·xH(2)O has been found to be a mild and efficient catalyst affording high yields under solvent-free conditions at rt with excellent chemo-, regio-, and stereoselectivities. The catalytic efficiency followed the order Zn(BF(4))(2)·xH(2)O ? Cu(BF(4))(2)·xH(2)O > Co(BF(4))(2)·6H(2)O ? Fe(BF(4))(2)·6H(2)O > LiBF(4) for reactions with cyclohexene oxide and Zn(BF(4))(2)·xH(2)O ? Co(BF(4))(2)·6H(2)O ? Fe(BF(4))(2)·6H(2)O > Cu(BF(4))(2)·xH(2)O for stilbene oxide, but AgBF(4) was ineffective. For reaction of styrene oxide with aniline, the metal tetrafluoroborates exhibited comparable regioselectivity (1:99-7:93) with preferential reaction at the benzylic carbon of the epoxide ring. A reversal of regioselectivity (91:1-69:31) in favor of the reaction at the terminal carbon of the epoxide ring was observed for reaction with morpholine. The regioselectivity was dependent on the electronic and steric factors of the epoxide and the pK(a) of the amine and independent of amine nucleophilicity. The role of the metal tetrafluoroborates is envisaged as "electrophile nucleophile dual activation" through cooperativity of coordination, charge-charge interaction, and hydrogen-bond formation that rationalizes the catalytic efficiency, substrate reactivity, and regioselectivity. The methodology was used for synthesis of cardiovascular drug metoprolol as racemic and enriched enantiomeric forms.     

Synthetic Utility of Epoxides for Chiral Functionalization of Isoxazoles

The lithio-anion of isoxazole 2 was found to ring open propylene oxide in good yields with complete regioselectivity. Vinylic and benzylic epoxides were utilized as key examples of electrophiles and found to produce a mixture of regioisomeric adducts. Additionally, the use of chiral epoxides was explored, and absolute configuration was determined by X-ray crystallography to prove that nucleophilic attack at the benzylic carbon of (R)-styrene oxide proceeds with 100% inversion at the benzylic carbon to afford the (S)-alcohol (4b).     

Carbonylative ring opening of terminal epoxides at atmospheric pressure

The carbonylative opening of terminal epoxides under mild conditions has been developed using Co2(CO)8 as the catalyst. Under 1 atm of carbon monoxide and at room temperature in methanol, propylene oxide is converted to methyl 3-hydroxybutanoate in up to 89% yield. This transformation is general for many terminal epoxides bearing alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, alkoxy, chloromethyl, phthalimido, and acetal functional groups. The opening takes place without epimerization at the secondary stereocenter.     

Multisite catalysis: a mechanistic study of beta-lactone synthesis from epoxides and CO--insights into a difficult case of homogeneous catalysis

Carbonylation of epoxides with a combination of Lewis acids and cobalt carbonyls was studied by both theoretical and experimental methods. Only multisite catalysis opens a low-energy pathway for trans opening of oxirane rings. This ring-opening reaction is not easily achieved with a single-site metal catalyst due to structural and thermodynamic constraints. The overall reaction pathway includes epoxide ring opening, which requires both a Lewis acid and a tetracarbonylcobaltate nucleophile, yielding a cobalt alkyl-alkoxy-Lewis acid moiety. After CO insertion into the Co-C(alkyl) bond, lactone formation results from a nucleophilic attack of the alkoxy Lewis acid entity on the acylium carbon atom. A theoretical study indicates a marked influence of the Lewis acid on both ring-opening and lactone-formation steps, but not on carbonylation. Strong Lewis acids induce fast ring opening, but slow lactone formation, and visa versa: a good balance of Lewis acidity would give the fastest catalytic cycle as all steps have low barriers. Experimentally, carbonylation of propylene oxide to beta-butyrolactone was monitored by online ATR-IR techniques with a mixture of tetracarbonylcobaltate and Lewis acids, namely BF(3), Me(3)Al, Et(2)Al(+).diglyme, and a combination of Me(3)Al/dicobaltoctacarbonyl. We found that the last two mixtures are extremely active in lactone formation.     

Antimony(III) chloride-catalyzed ring opening of epoxides with anilines

A mild and convenient ring opening of epoxides with aniline and its derivatives takes place at room temperature in the presence of antimony trichloride as catalyst to afford the corresponding β-amino alcohols in good yields.     

Differences in Reactivity of Epoxides in the Copolymerisation with Carbon Dioxide by Zinc-Based Catalysts: Propylene Oxide versus Cyclohexene Oxide

The homogeneous dinuclear zinc catalyst going back to the work of Williams et al. is to date the most active catalyst for the copolymerisation of cyclohexene oxide and CO₂ at one atmosphere of carbon dioxide. However, this catalyst shows no copolymer formation in the copolymerisation reaction of propylene oxide and carbon dioxide, instead only cyclic carbonate is found. This behaviour is known for many zinc‐based catalysts, although the reasons are still unidentified. Within our studies, we focus on the parameters that are responsible for this typical behaviour. A deactivation of the catalyst due to a reaction with propylene oxide turns out to be negligible. Furthermore, the catalyst still shows poly(cyclohexene carbonate) formation in the presence of cyclic propylene carbonate, but the catalyst activity is dramatically reduced. In terpolymerisation reactions of CO₂ with different ratios of cyclohexene oxide to propylene oxide, no incorporation of propylene oxide can be detected, which can only be explained by a very fast back‐biting reaction. Kinetic investigations indicate a complex reaction network, which can be manifested by theoretical investigations. DFT calculations show that the ring strains of both epoxides are comparable and the kinetic barriers for the chain propagation even favour the poly(propylene carbonate) over the poly(cyclohexene carbonate) formation. Therefore, the crucial step in the copolymerisation of propylene oxide and carbon dioxide is the back‐biting reaction in the case of the studied zinc catalyst. The depolymerisation is several orders of magnitude faster for poly(propylene carbonate) than for poly(cyclohexene carbonate).     

Theoretical study of the full reaction mechanism of human soluble epoxide hydrolase

The complete reaction mechanism of soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) has been investigated by using the B3LYP density functional theory method. Epoxide hydrolases catalyze the conversion of epoxides to their corresponding vicinal diols. In our theoretical study, the sEH active site is represented by quantum-chemical models that are based on the X-ray crystal structure of human soluble epoxide hydrolase. The trans-substituted epoxide (1S,2S)-beta-methylstyrene oxide has been used as a substrate in the theoretical investigation of the sEH reaction mechanism. Both the alkylation and the hydrolytic half-reactions have been studied in detail. We present the energetics of the reaction mechanism as well as the optimized intermediates and transition-state structures. Full potential energy curves for the reactions involving nucleophilic attack at either the benzylic or the homo-benzylic carbon atom of (1S,2S)-beta-methylstyrene oxide have been computed. The regioselectivity of epoxide opening has been addressed for the two substrates (1S,2S)-beta-methylstyrene oxide and (S)-styrene oxide.     

温和条件下电催化CO2与环氧丙烷合成碳酸丙烯酯

 在常温常压下研究了CO2的电化学活化及其与环氧丙烷反应合成碳酸丙烯酯,考察了支持电解质对碳酸丙烯酯产率的影响. 结果表明,含有Br-的支持电解质对合成碳酸丙烯酯起到明显的催化效果. 在实验研究基础上,对反应机理进行了初步推测,认为Mg2+起到路易斯酸的作用并与环氧丙烷的氧原子配位,同时Br-作为亲核试剂进攻环氧丙烷的 C-O 键使其断裂开环,形成的中间物与CO2还原产生的活化物质结合形成碳酸丙烯酯.     

The aminolysis and esterification of unsymmetrical epoxides

The reactions of 1,2-epoxypropane (I) and 2-methyl-2,3-epoxypentane (II) with various primary and secondary amines and with hexahydrophthalic anhydride in the presence of hydroxylic catalysts have been studied. The direction of ring opening of the epoxides on reaction with the amines is unaltered by the presence of phenol as catalyst, and involves attack at the least substituted carbon atom of the epoxide ring. The structures of the piperidino adducts (viz. IV and V) derived from the phenol-catalysed reaction of piperidine with I and II, respectively, were proved by unambiguous syntheses of IV and V by the interaction of the corresponding chlorhydrin with piperidine. With hexahydrophthalic anhydride in the presence of water, I gave a low molecular weight polymeric ester whereas II afforded mainly a diadduct derived from the reaction of two molecules of II with one molecule of the anhydride. Reaction mechanisms are discussed briefly.     

Comparative kinetic studies of the copolymerization of cyclohexene oxide and propylene oxide with carbon dioxide in the presence of chromium salen derivatives. In situ FTIR measurements of copolymer vs cyclic carbonate production

The catalysis of the reaction of carbon dioxide with epoxides (cyclohexene oxide or propylene oxide) using the (salen)Cr(III)Cl complex as catalyst, where H(2)salen = N,N'-bis(3,5-di-tert-butylsalicylidene)-1,2-cyclohexenediimine (1), to provide copolymer and cyclic carbonate has been investigated by in situ infrared spectroscopy. As previously demonstrated for the cyclohexene oxide/CO(2) reaction in the presence of complex 1, coupling of propylene oxide and carbon dioxide was found to occur by way of a pathway first-order in catalyst concentration. Unlike the cyclohexene oxide/carbon dioxide reaction catalyzed by complex 1, which affords completely alternating copolymer and only small quantities of trans-cyclic cyclohexyl carbonate, under similar conditions propylene oxide/carbon dioxide produces mostly cyclic propylene carbonate. Comparative kinetic measurements were performed as a function of reaction temperature to assess the activation barrier for production of cyclic carbonates and polycarbonates for the two different classes of epoxides, i.e., alicyclic (cyclohexene oxide) and aliphatic (propylene oxide). As anticipated in both instances the unimolecular pathway for cyclic carbonate formation has a larger energy of activation than the bimolecular enchainment pathway. That is, the energies of activation determined for cyclic propylene carbonate and poly(propylene carbonate) formation were 100.5 and 67.6 kJ.mol(-1), respectively, compared to the corresponding values for cyclic cyclohexyl carbonate and poly(cyclohexylene carbonate) production of 133 and 46.9 kJ.mol(-1). The small energy difference in the two concurrent reactions for the propylene oxide/CO(2) process (33 kJ.mol(-1)) accounts for the large quantity of cyclic carbonate produced at elevated temperatures in this instance.