Prediction of flow stress at hot working condition

A mathematical model has been developed to determine flow stress at hot deformation condition. The proposed model is capable of including work softening due to dynamic phase transformations as well as the effect of temperature and strain rate variation on flow stress utilizing the additivity rule for strain. To verify the model, hot compression tests for two grades of steels has been carried out. The comparison between the experimental and theoretical results confirms the validity of the model.     

Uniaxial ratcheting and fatigue failure of tempered 42CrMo steel: Damage evolution and damage-coupled visco-plastic constitutive model

Uniaxial ratcheting and fatigue failure of tempered 42CrMo steel were observed by the tests under the uniaxial stress-controlled cyclic loading with non-zero mean stress [G.Z. Kang, Y.J. Liu, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 472 (2008) 258–268]. Based on the obtained experimental results, the evolution features of whole-life ratcheting behavior and low-cycle fatigue (LCF) damage of the material were discussed first. Then, in the framework of unified visco-plasticity and continuum damage mechanics, a damage-coupled visco-plastic cyclic constitutive model was proposed to simulate the whole-life ratcheting and predict the fatigue failure life of the material presented in the uniaxial stress cycling with non-zero mean stress. In the proposed model, the damage was divided into two parts, i.e., elastic damage and plastic damage, which were described by the evolution equations with the same form but different constants, since the maximum applied stresses in most of loading cases were lower than the nominal yielding strength of the material. The ratcheting of the material was still described by employing a nonlinear kinematic hardening rule based on the Abdel-Karim–Ohno combined kinematic hardening model [M. Abdel Karim, N. Ohno, Int. J. Plast. 16 (2000) 225–240] but extended by considering the effect of damage. The maximum strain criterion combined with an elastic damage threshold was employed to determine the failure life of the material caused by two different failure modes, i.e., fatigue failure (caused by low-cycle fatigue due to plastic shakedown) and ductile failure (caused by large ratcheting strain). The simulated whole-life ratcheting behavior and predicted failure life of tempered 42CrMo steel are in a fairly good agreement with the experimental ones.     

调质42CrMo钢的棘轮-疲劳交互作用及其耦合损伤粘塑性本构模型

对调质42CrMo钢的棘轮-疲劳交互作用的实验结果进行了分析,揭示了材料在非对称应力循环下的全寿命棘轮变形特征和低周疲劳损伤演化特性.在统一粘塑性循环本构模型框架下,基于连续损伤力学理论,提出一个耦合损伤的牯塑性本构模型.该模型中将损伤分为宏观弹性损伤和塑性损伤两部分,并采用不同的损伤演化方程来描述这两类损伤.针对材料不同的失效模式,分别采用损伤变量门槛值和最大应变作为失效判据.将模型应用于调质42CrMo钢单轴应力循环下全寿命棘轮行为的描述和低周疲劳寿命预测中,模拟结果和实验结果吻合较好.     

Determination of tensile flow stress beyond necking at very high strain rate

The objective of this effort was to extend the Bridgman analysis of tensile necking to obtain stress-strain data beyond the point of onset of necking from a split Hopkinson bar. For this purpose, combined analytical and experimental techniques were considered. The analytical efforts were focused on validating the use of Bridgman solutions for high rate of deformation through a finite-element analysis of a tapered tensile specimen. The experimental technique involved the development of a photographic system using a light-emitting diode and a 35-mm rotating drum camera for the observation of necking during dynamic tensile tests conducted with a split Hopkinson tension bar. The developed new technique was successfully used to measure neck profiles of 6061-T6 aluminum, HY100 and 1020 steel tensile specimens. The measured profiles were used with the Bridgman analysis and stress-strain data were obtained to over 70-percent strain.     

淬硬45钢在高温、高应变率下的动态力学性能及本构关系

在20℃~800℃的温度范围和10-3~104s-1的应变率范围内,采用电子万能试验机和分离式霍 普金森压杆,对淬硬45钢(45HRC)分别进行准静态实验和动态压缩力学性能实验,得到应力应变曲线。结 果表明:淬硬45钢的流动应力对应变率敏感性一般,但表现出较强的温度敏感性,随着应变率的增大而增大, 随着温度的升高而降低。采用以高斯函数表示温度效应的改进Johnson-Cook本构方程拟合了淬硬45钢在 高应变率和高温条件下的本构关系,拟合曲线与实验数据吻合较好。     

Photoelastic technique to investigate the effect of temperature and strain rate on plastic flow in mild steel

Dynamic photoelastic-coating technique was used to observe successive developments of plastic flow in tension at a temperature ranging from ?157°C to 20°C. A type of plastic flow occurred which was determined by a combination of temperature and strain rate. A correlation was found to exist between photoelastic observations and the equation of thermal activation.     

Strain rate sensitivity of flow stress at low temperatures in 304n stainless steel

Strain rate and temperature effects on the flow stress of 304N stainless steel were investigated using data obtained from torsion tests on thin-walled tubular specimens, at given strain rates of between 10⁻³ and 10⁻¹ with temperatures ranging from 83 to 296 K. Initially, the apparent strain rate sensitivity of the flow stress, obtained at test temperatures of 83, 153, 213, and 296 K, was examined. The strain dependence and the strain rate dependence of the mechanical threshold stress (the flow stress at O K) at strains less than 0.1 and at strain rates of 2.4 × 10⁻³ and 8.3 × 10² s⁻¹, is also discussed. It was concluded from the experimental results that the mechanical threshold stress depends not only on the strain but also on the strain rate.     

PTFE材料在高应变率冲击下的力学性能

聚四氟乙烯(PTFE)在高速碰撞或者爆炸加载时的应变率可高达10⁶ s^-1,高应变率下PTFE材料的力学响应会对其材料性能产生较大影响。本文中采用压剪炮试验系统(PSPI)测试了PTFE材料在高应变率(10⁵~10⁶ s^-1)下的压缩力学性能,实验中碳化钨(WC)飞片板以一定速度撞击由前靶板、试件和后靶板组成的三明治结构,并采用激光干涉仪记录后靶板自由面的速度变化。对实验结果处理后得到该PTFE材料的应力应变数值,并拟合得到应力应变曲线。本研究对PTFE/金属复合材料制成的动能侵彻体强度及其冲击碎化机理的分析具有指导意义。

     

拉伸应变率对20钢层裂特性的影响

采用轻气炮加载技术和激光速度干涉(VISAR)测速技术相结合,对不同拉伸应变率条件下20钢的层裂特性进行了实验研究。通过改变飞片和样品的几何尺寸来调整拉伸应变率的大小,研究了拉伸应变率对20钢层裂强度的影响。实验的拉伸应变率的变化范围为104~106 s-1,最大拉伸应变率接近激光加载所能产生的拉伸应变率,相比激光加载,薄飞片技术容易保证一维应变条件。实验结果显示20钢的层裂特性明显依赖着拉伸应变率的大小,106 s-1条件下层裂强度比104 s-1时提高近70%。基于对数值计算结果的分析,讨论了影响层裂强度的主要外载荷因素。     

高应力岩体爆破卸荷过程中应变率及应变能特征

针对高应力岩体爆破开挖卸载问题,自制了一台轴向加、卸载实验测试平台,通过实验测试获得了爆破卸荷过程中岩杆的动态应变及应变率数据。实测数据表明：开挖面附近岩体的爆破加、卸载以及初始应力卸载应变率均在10⁻¹ s⁻¹量级以上,验证了高地应力区岩体爆破开挖卸荷是一动态过程。建立了初始应力卸载一维力学模型,揭示了卸载波的传播机制;通过分析爆破卸荷过程应变能密度的时空分布特征,建立了应变能密度与各阶段应变率变化规律的联系。结合实测数据,采用隐式-显式顺序求解方法,进一步分析了高应力区岩体爆破卸荷荷载各阶段应变率沿岩杆的变化规律。结果表明：爆破加载阶段的平均应变率沿杆件逐渐衰减,且衰减速度逐渐减小;爆破卸阶段平均应变率沿杆件也呈衰减趋势;而初始应力的应变能稳定释放,其平均应变率无衰减趋势。

     

Optical measurement of the specimen deformation at high strain rate

During recent years, the investigation of the strain-rate-dependent properties of materials has become more and more important. The experimental techniques used to establish the specific dynamic behavior of materials all have in common that the acquisition of information concerning the deformation of the specimen is cumbersone and often questionable. Mostly, only limited information on the spatial distribution and time evolution of the deformation in specimen can be obtained. In this paper, a non-contact, optical technique is presented, providing the time evolution and spatial distribution of the axial deformation in specimens during a high strain rate test. The deformation of a line grid attached to the specimen is recorded during an experiment by means of a rotating drum camera. The time history of the axial displacements is subsequently derived by an advanced technique based on digital geometric moiré combined with a phase-shift method, specially developed to this purpose. The technique can be applied to a wide range of materials and high strain rate tests, and is illustrated by means of a split Hopkinson tensile bar experiment on a steel sheet specimen.     

Dynamic crushing characteristics of high strength steel cylinders with elliptical geometric discontinuities

Thin-walled members are commonly used as energy absorbers in engineering structures and often contain cutouts. This study performed numerical simulations of high strength steel cylindrical shells with elliptical cutouts subjected to dynamic axial impact. The LS-DYNA code was the primary analytical tool used to analyze the influence of cutout locations, cutout shapes and symmetry of cutout on the energy absorption capabilities and the crush characteristics of tubes with a cutout. For high strength steel tubes made from a rate sensitive material, the stress-strain curves of different strain rates were used to elucidate the effect of dynamic impact on the strain rate. Our results show that collapse crushing behavior is strongly influenced by the location and symmetry of cutouts and the variation of major axis influences the peak crush load.     

高应变率下纯水冰和杂质冰的动态力学行为

通过采用大热惯性试件快速加载技术和波形整形技术,对3种冰材料在-18℃下的动态压缩性能进行测试,实验中试件达到了应力均衡和近似恒应变率加载等条件。通过实验波形对比分析,解释了反射波和透射波中的“双峰现象”。在700~2 700 s^-1的应变率范围内,纯冰试件的压缩强度为14.5~49.3 MPa,相比于准静态结果表现出明显的动态增强效应。含有杂质的冰试件总体峰值应力相比于纯水冰试件有较大提升,而峰值应力对应的平均应变在减小,这表明添加了杂质的冰试件动态模量增大,冰材料变得更硬,其抵抗变形的能力更强。b型试件所表现出的强度(41.3~51.6 MPa)较a、c型试件均有提高并且分散性较小,说明该试件中杂质与冰晶体之间的结合力较强,抑制了微裂纹的萌生、扩展、成核等过程。     

Stress–strain behaviour of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) during large plastic deformation by plane strain compression: the relation between stress–strain curve and thermal history, temperature and strain rate

This study presents an experimental investigation of the large plastic deformation of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) submitted to plane strain compression. PET samples, obtained by injection moulding, annealed and non-annealed, were deformed using a specific compression device developed for this purpose. The obtained stress–strain curves at different temperatures and strain rates are useful for engineering applications and show a significant temperature dependence and a minor dependence on the strain rate. A softening temperature as a minimum temperature necessary to initiate deformation when a minimum, almost zero, stress is applied is introduced. This temperature, at the zero stress and strain limit, we denominate “Stress–Strain independent softening Temperature (T _SOF)”. The T _SOF values, 104 and 113°C for non-annealed and annealed PET, respectively, have been obtained using three different strain rates, indicating that the property is sensitive to the thermal history of the material.     

Instability and localization of plastic flow in shear at high strain rates

Shear band formation in a thermal viscoplastic heat conducting material is described in a simple shear test at high strain rate with inertia effects. The classical perturbation method is discussed, and a new relative perturbation method accounting for non-steadiness of plastic flow is presented. They respectively provide instability and localization criteria which are compared. Furthermore both are compared to available nonlinear exact results and to experimental data. The influence of material parameters, initial imperfections, and boundary conditions is described.     

On the response of rubbers at high strain rates—II. Shock waves

In this series of papers, we examine the propagation of waves of finite deformation in rubbers through experiments and analysis; in the present paper, Part II, attention is focused on the propagation of one-dimensional tensile shock waves in strips of latex and nitrile rubber. Tensile wave propagation experiments were conducted at high strain rates by holding one end fixed and displacing the other end at a constant velocity. A high-speed video camera was used to monitor the motion and to determine the evolution of strain and particle velocity in rubber strips. Shock waves have been generated under tensile impact in prestretched rubber strips; analysis of the response yields the tensile shock adiabat for rubbers. The propagation of shocks is analyzed by developing an analogy with the theory of detonation; it is shown that the condition for shock propagation can be determined using the Chapman-Jouguet shock condition.     

On the response of rubbers at high strain rates—III. Effect of hysteresis

In this series of papers, we examine the propagation of waves of finite deformation in rubbers through experiments and analysis; in the present paper, Part III, the effect of hysteretic material behavior on the free retraction of prestretched rubber is considered. A rubber strip stretched to many times its initial length is released at one end and the resulting unloading is examined. A high-speed video camera was used to monitor the motion and to determine the evolution of strain and particle velocity in rubber strips. Simple waves as well as shock waves are observed in these unloading experiments. The measurements are modeled using a power-law model of the material behavior. The hysteretic material response and the formation of shocks are characterized.     

碳纤维增韧的陶瓷基复合材料在高温高应变率下的压缩力学行为

利用高温电子万能试验机和具有高温同步自组装功能的Hopkinson压杆对二维C/SiC复合材料进行了应变率为10-4~103s-1,温度为293~1273K下的单轴压缩力学性能测试。实验结果表明:二维C/SiC复合材料破坏时并未表现出典型的脆性破坏,而是在应力达到压缩强度时出现了显著的应变软化,在经历了较大的变形后才最终破坏,同时材料还表现出良好的高温承载能力及一定的温度和应变率依赖性。随着温度的升高,复合材料的压缩强度呈降低的趋势。与准静态下室温压缩时相比,材料在1273K 时的压缩强度的降低程度不超过30%,但压缩强度对应变率的敏感性随着温度的升高而增大。由于高温下试样氧化,C/SiC复合材料压缩强度对应变率的敏感性在温度为1073K时显著增大。     

Use of ram extruder as a combined rheo-tribometer to study the behaviour of high yield stress fluids at low strain rate

We propose in this work to provide an efficient and simple extruder device able to evaluate the rheological and tribological behaviour of high yield stress fluids, such as extrudible materials. An extruder able to measure simultaneously both the friction force acting on the extruder wall and the total extrusion force is developed. Based on previous studies, an efficient and accurate method of data analysis is then proposed and applied in order to obtain both a flow curve and a tribological law. Experimental tests are performed on soft modelling clay, kaolin paste and cement-based materials. Results are compared to conventional rheometry measurements. This comparison helps to evaluate the accuracy of the proposed experimental device and procedure.