Crystallization of aqueous inorganic-malonic acid particles: nucleation rates, dependence on size, and dependence on the ammonium-to-sulfate ratio

Using an electrodynamic balance, we determined the relative humidity (RH) at which aqueous inorganic-malonic acid particles crystallized, with ammonium sulfate ((NH(4))(2)SO(4)), letovicite ((NH(4))(3)H(SO(4))(2)), or ammonium bisulfate (NH(4)HSO(4)) as the inorganic component. The results for (NH(4))(2)SO(4)-malonic acid particles and (NH(4))(3)H(SO(4))(2)-malonic acid particles show that malonic acid decreases the crystallization RH of the inorganic particles by less than 7% RH when the dry malonic acid mole fraction is less than 0.25. At a dry malonic acid mole fraction of about 0.5, the presence of malonic acid can decrease the crystallization RH of the inorganic particles by up to 35% RH. For the NH(4)HSO(4)-malonic acid particles, the presence of malonic acid does not significantly modify the crystallization RH of the inorganic particles for the entire range of dry malonic acid mole fractions studied; in all cases, either the particles did not crystallize or the crystallization RH was close to 0% RH. Size dependent measurements show that the crystallization RH of aqueous (NH(4))(2)SO(4) particles is not a strong function of particle volume. However, for aqueous (NH(4))(2)SO(4)-malonic acid particles (with dry malonic acid mole fraction = 0.36), the crystallization RH is a stronger function of particle volume, with the crystallization RH decreasing by 6 +/- 3% RH when the particle volume decreases by an order of magnitude. To our knowledge, these are the first size dependent measurements of the crystallization RH of atmospherically relevant inorganic-organic particles. These results suggest that for certain organic mole fractions the particle size and observation time need to be considered when extrapolating laboratory crystallization results to atmospheric scenarios. For aqueous (NH(4))(2)SO(4) particles, the homogeneous nucleation rate data are a strong function of RH, but for aqueous (NH(4))(2)SO(4)-malonic acid particles (with dry organic mole fraction = 0.36), the rates are not as dependent on RH. The homogeneous nucleation rates for aqueous (NH(4))(2)SO(4) particles were parametrized using classical nucleation theory, and from this analysis we determined that the interfacial surface tension between the crystalline ammonium sulfate critical nucleus and an aqueous ammonium sulfate solution is between 0.053 and 0.070 J m(-2).     

Equilibrium phase diagrams of aqueous mixtures of malonic acid and sulfate/ammonium salts

Tropospheric aerosols are usually complex mixtures of inorganic and organic components. Although the thermodynamic properties of inorganic aerosols have been widely studied, the effect of organics on such properties is still under discussion. In this study, solubility in water, water activity (a(w)) of aqueous solutions, deliquescence relative humidity (DRH), eutonic composition, and eutonic DRH were determined for bulk mixtures of malonic acid (MA) with ammonium sulfate (AS) and ammonium bisulfate (ABS) at 25 degrees C over the full range of composition (from 0 wt % to the solubility limit of the mixture components). The data were used to construct equilibrium phase diagrams, which show the phase of the mixtures as a function of total composition, dry mixture composition, water content, and ambient relative humidity (RH). This work complements previous reports on the thermodynamic properties of AS/MA mixtures because the range of concentrations investigated is larger than in any other published single study. On the other hand, this is the first report on the a(w), deliquescence, and water absorption of ABS/MA mixtures. The eutonic composition for AS/MA mixtures was found to be 66.8 MA dry wt % (MA dry wt % = MA mass x 100/(AS mass + MA mass) with a DRH of 0.437. The eutonic composition for the ABS/MA mixtures was lower than for the AS/MA mixtures: 20.9 MA dry wt % with a DRH of 0.327. Measured a(w) of liquid AS/MA and ABS/MA solutions is compared with an extended Zdanovskii-Stokes-Robinson expression, obtaining a good agreement (error < 5-6%). The expression was used to predict water uptake of mixtures and might be useful to interpret particle hygroscopic growth experiments. Comparison of the AS/MA and ABS/MA systems indicates that ABS reduces the DRH and enhances water uptake, relative to mixtures with AS. The results confirm that ambient particles containing sulfate and water-soluble organic compounds can remain liquid or partially liquid at very low ambient RH conditions, especially if the sulfate is not completely neutralized.     

Heterogeneous reactivity of chlorine atoms with ammonium sulfate and ammonium nitrate particles

In this laboratory study, model particles of ammonium sulfate (AS) and ammonium nitrate (AN) were exposed to chlorine atoms and uptake experiments were performed in a coated wall flow tube reactor coupled to a molecular beam mass spectrometer. The reactive surfaces were prepared by coating the inner surface of the reactor using two different methods: either by depositing size-selected particles on the halocarbon wax or by spray depositing thin films using a constant output atomizer. The observed uptake coefficients vary for (NH(4))(2)SO(4), ranging from γ(Cl)(AS)≈ 1 × 10(-3) for size-selected particles to γ(Cl)(AS)≈ 6 × 10(-2) for thin films prepared by spray. An uptake coefficient of γ(Cl)(AN)≈ 2.5 × 10(-3) of Cl˙ on size-selected NH(4)NO(3) particles was measured. A heterogeneous recombination of Cl atoms to from Cl(2) molecules was observed for the two surfaces. Furthermore, an ageing process was observed for AS particles, this phenomenon leading to the formation of new chlorine species on the solid substrate.     

Ammonium bisulfate/water: a pseudobinary system

We have studied the ammonium bisulfate/water system using thermal analysis (differential scanning calorimetry) and infrared spectroscopy of thin films. Our results for the melting points for ice and letovicite are in good agreement with other experimental work. However, we report here the first measurements of the ice/ammonium bisulfate/letovicite invariant point. We have used our observations and solubility data to construct a complete phase diagram for this system. Utilizing phase diagram theory and the Gibbs phase rule, we conclude that this system is not a true binary system but rather a pseudobinary system, which has a range of concentrations that cannot be represented by a simple binary phase diagram and thus must be viewed as part of the ternary system: H(2)SO(4)/(NH(4))(2)SO(4)/H(2)O. We also compared our results to the phase diagram predictions of the aerosol inorganics model and found the predicted melting points are in good agreement with experimental work over a limited concentration range, but the transitions predicted by the model at lower temperatures are not in agreement with experimental results.     

Kinetics of heterogeneous reactions of HO2 radical at ambient concentration levels with (NH4)2SO4 and NaCl aerosol particles

The HO2 uptake coefficient (gamma) for inorganic submicrometer wet and dry aerosol particles ((NH4)2SO4 and NaCl) under ambient conditions (760 Torr and 296 +/- 2 K) was measured using an aerosol flow tube (AFT) coupled with a chemical conversion/laser-induced fluorescence (CC/LIF) technique. The CC/LIF technique enabled experiments to be performed at almost the same HO2 radical concentration as that in the atmosphere. HO2 radicals were injected into the AFT through a vertically movable Pyrex tube. Injector position-dependent profiles of LIF intensity were measured as a function of aerosol concentration. Measured gamma values for dry aerosols of (NH4)2SO4 were 0.04 +/- 0.02 and 0.05 +/- 0.02 at 20% and 45% relative humidity (RH), respectively, while those of NaCl were <0.01 and 0.02 +/- 0.01 at 20% and 53% RH, respectively. For wet (NH4)2SO4 aerosols, measured gamma values were 0.11 +/- 0.03, 0.15 +/- 0.03, 0.17 +/- 0.04, and 0.19 +/- 0.04, at 45%, 55%, 65%, and 75% RH, respectively, whereas for wet NaCl aerosols the values were 0.11 +/- 0.03, 0.09 +/- 0.02, and 0.10 +/- 0.02 for 53%, 63%, and 75% RH, respectively. Wet (NH4)2SO4 and NaCl aerosols doped with CuSO4 showed gamma values of 0.53 +/- 0.12 and 0.65 +/- 0.17, respectively. These results suggest that compositions, RH, and phase for aerosol particles are significant to HO2 uptake. Potential HO2 loss processes and their atmospheric contributions are discussed.     

Investigations of the hygroscopic properties of ammonium sulfate and mixed ammonium sulfate and glutaric acid micro droplets by means of optical levitation and Raman spectroscopy

In the presented work an optical levitation technique performed by means of a focused laser beam, Mie and Raman spectroscopy have been utilized for measuring hygroscopic growth curves and composition of laboratory generated single ammonium sulfate (AS) and internally mixed ammonium sulfate-glutaric acid (GA) droplets in the micrometer range. The generated particles have been found to immediately supersaturate (above 45wt% for AS) at 297 K after capturing in the laser beam. Further increase of the relative humidity (RH) up to 85% does not dilute the droplets under the saturation point. A spontaneous hygroscopic growth takes place at 73.5-78% RH for pure AS. The particle grows with an average factor of 1.62 at the deliquescence relative humidity (DRH). Efflorescence of AS occurs at 43% RH with a corresponding concentration of more than 85wt%. Independent of the mixing ratios in ranges 25/75, 50/50, 75/25% AS/GA mixed particles don't exist as a metastable supersaturated solution droplets in the 35-85% RH range. Instead of growing with increasing relative humidity internally mixed particles build up a solid crystalline layer on the surface. This crystalline phase is not further influenced by ambient relative humidities.     

Crystallization pathways of sulfate-nitrate-ammonium aerosol particles

Crystallization experiments are conducted for aerosol particles composed of aqueous mixtures of (NH(4))(2)SO(4)(aq) and NH(4)NO(3)(aq), (NH(4))(2)SO(4)(aq) and NH(4)HSO(4)(aq), and NH(4)NO(3)(aq) and NH(4)HSO(4)(aq). Depending on the aqueous composition, crystals of (NH(4))(2)SO(4)(s), (NH(4))(3)H(SO(4))(2)(s), NH(4)HSO(4)(s), NH(4)NO(3)(s), 2NH(4)NO(3) x (NH(4))(2)SO(4)(s), and 3NH(4)NO(3) x (NH(4))(2)SO(4)(s) are formed. Although particles of NH(4)NO(3)(aq) and NH(4)HSO(4)(aq) do not crystallize even at 1% relative humidity, additions of 0.05 mol fraction SO(4)(2-)(aq) or NO(3)(-)(aq) ions promote crystallization, respectively. 2NH(4)NO(3) x (NH(4))(2)SO(4)(s) and (NH(4))(3)H(SO(4))(2)(s) appear to serve as good heterogeneous nuclei for NH(4)NO(3)(s) and NH(4)HSO(4)(s), respectively. 2NH(4)NO(3) x (NH(4))(2)SO(4)(s) crystallizes over a greater range of aqueous compositions than 3NH(4)NO(3) x (NH(4))(2)SO(4)(s). An infrared aerosol spectrum is provided for each solid based upon a linear decomposition analysis of the recorded spectra. Small nonzero residuals occur in the analysis because aerosol spectra depend on particle morphology, which changes slightly across the range of compositions studied. In addition, several of the mixed compositions crystallize with residual aqueous water of up to 5% particle mass. We attribute this water content to enclosed water pockets. The results provide further insights into the nonlinear crystallization pathways of sulfate-nitrate-ammonium aerosol particles.     

Experimental determination of the H2SO4/(NH4)2SO4/H2O phase diagram

We have experimentally investigated the water and sulfuric acid-rich regions of the H2SO4/(NH4)2SO4/H2O ternary liquid/solid phase diagram using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and infrared spectroscopy of thin films. We present the liquid/solid ternary phase diagram for temperatures below 373 K and H2SO4 concentrations below 60 wt %. We have determined two ternary eutectics and two tributary reaction points for this system in the regions studied. It is also seen that sulfuric acid tetrahydrate (SAT) forms as a metastable solid over a large concentration range. Two true binary systems have been identified: ice/letovicite and SAT/ammonium bisulfate. Finally, we have compared our results to the predictions of the aerosol inorganics model and have found significant differences both in the final melting points and in the location of some of the phase boundaries including a significant discrepancy in the invariant points predicted versus those observed.     

Internal structure, hygroscopic and reactive properties of mixed sodium methanesulfonate-sodium chloride particles

Internal structures, hygroscopic properties and heterogeneous reactivity of mixed CH(3)SO(3)Na/NaCl particles were investigated using a combination of computer modeling and experimental approaches. Surfactant properties of CH(3)SO(3)(-) ions and their surface accumulation in wet, deliquesced particles were assessed using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and surface tension measurements. Internal structures of dry CH(3)SO(3)Na/NaCl particles were investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) assisted with X-ray microanalysis mapping, and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS). The combination of these techniques shows that dry CH(3)SO(3)Na/NaCl particles are composed of a NaCl core surrounded by a CH(3)SO(3)Na shell. Hygroscopic growth, deliquescence and efflorescence phase transitions of mixed CH(3)SO(3)Na/NaCl particles were determined and compared to those of pure NaCl particles. These results indicate that particles undergo a two step deliquescence transition: first at ～69% relative humidity (RH) the CH(3)SO(3)Na shell takes up water, and then at ～75% RH the NaCl core deliquesces. Reactive uptake coefficients for the particle-HNO(3) heterogeneous reaction were determined at different CH(3)SO(3)Na/NaCl mixing ratios and RH. The net reaction probability decreased notably with increasing CH(3)SO(3)Na and at lower RH.     

Reactive uptake of N2O5 by aerosol particles containing mixtures of humic acid and ammonium sulfate

The kinetics of reactive uptake of N2O5 on submicron aerosol particles containing humic acid and ammonium sulfate has been investigated as a function of relative humidity (RH) and aerosol composition using a laminar flow reactor coupled with a differential mobility analyzer (DMA) to characterize the aerosol. For single-component humic acid aerosol the uptake coefficient, gamma, was found to increase from 2 to 9 x 10(-4) over the range 25-75% RH. These values are 1-2 orders of magnitude below those typically observed for single-component sulfate aerosols (Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2003, 5, 3453-3463;(1) Atmos. Environ. 2000, 34, 2131-2159(2)). For the mixed aerosols, gamma was found to decrease with increasing humic acid mass fraction and increase with increasing RH. For aerosols containing only 6% humic acid by dry mass, a decrease in reactivity of more than a factor of 2 was observed compared with the case for single-component ammonium sulfate. The concentration of liquid water in the aerosol droplets was calculated using the aerosol inorganic model (for the ammonium sulfate component) and a new combined FTIR-DMA system (for the humic acid component). Analysis of the uptake coefficients using the water concentration data shows that the change in reactivity cannot be explained by the change in water content alone. We suggest that, due to its surfactant properties, the main effect of the humic acid is to reduce the mass accommodation coefficient for N2O5 at the aerosol particle surface. This has implications for the use of particle hygroscopicity data for predictions of the rate of N2O5 hydrolysis.     

Reactive uptake of nitric acid onto sodium chloride aerosols across a wide range of relative humidities

Reactive uptake coefficients for nitric acid onto size-selected (d(ve) = 102 and 233 nm) sodium chloride aerosols are determined for relative humidities (RH) between 85% and 10%. Both pure sodium chloride and sodium chloride mixed with magnesium chloride (X(Mg/Na) = 0.114, typical of sea salt) are studied. The aerosol is equilibrated with a carrier gas stream at the desired RH and then mixed with nitric acid vapor at a concentration of 60 ppb in a laminar flow tube reactor. At the end of the reactor, the particle composition is determined in real time with a laser ablation single particle mass spectrometer. For relative humidities above the efflorescence relative humidity (ERH), the particles exist as liquid droplets and the uptake coefficient ranges from 0.05 at 85% RH to >0.1 near the ERH. The droplet sizes, relative humidity and composition dependencies, are readily predicted by thermodynamics. For relative humidities below the ERH, the particles are nominally "solid" and uptake depends on the amount of surface adsorbed water (SAW). The addition of magnesium chloride to the particle phase (0.114 mole ratio of magnesium to sodium) facilitates uptake by increasing the amount of SAW. In the presence of magnesium chloride, the uptake coefficient remains high (>0.1) down to 10% RH, suggesting that the displacement of chloride by nitrate in fine sea salt particles is efficient over the entire range of conditions in the ambient marine environment. In the marine boundary layer, displacement of chloride by nitrate in fine sea salt particles should be nearly complete within a few hours (faster in polluted areas)-a time scale much shorter than the particle residence time in the atmosphere.     

Investigation of efflorescence of inorganic aerosols using fluorescence spectroscopy

The phase transition is one of the most fundamental phenomena affecting the physical and chemical properties of atmospheric aerosols. Efflorescence, in particular, is not well understood, partly because the molecular interactions between the solute and water molecules of saturated or supersaturated solution droplets have not been well characterized. Recently, we developed a technique that combines the use of an electrodynamic balance and a fluorescence dye, 8-hydroxyl-1,3,6-pyrenetrisulfonate (pyranine), to study the distributions of solvated and free water in aqueous droplets (Choi, M. Y.; Chan, C. K.; Zhang, Y. H. J. Phys. Chem. A 2004, 108, 1133). We found that the equality of the amounts of solvated and free water is a necessary but not sufficient condition for efflorescence. For efflorescing compounds such as Na2SO4, (NH4)2SO4, and a mixture of NaCl and Na2SO4, the amount of free water decreases, while that of solvated water is roughly constant in bulk measurements and decreases less dramatically than that of free water in single-particle measurements as the relative humidity (RH) decreases. Efflorescence of the supersaturated droplets of these solutions occurs when the amounts of free and solvated water are equal, which is consistent with our previous observation for NaCl. For nonefflorescing compounds in single-particle levitation experiments such as MgSO4 and Mg(NO3)2, the amounts of free and solvated water are equal at a water-to-solute molar ratio of about 6, at which spectral changes due to the formation of contact ion pairs between magnesium and the anions occur as shown by Raman spectroscopy. Fluorescence imaging shows that the droplets of diluted Mg(NO3)2 (at 80% RH) and MgSO4 are homogeneous but those of NaCl, Na2SO4, (NH4)2SO4, and supersaturated Mg(NO3)2 (at 10% RH) are heterogeneous in terms of the solvated-to-free water distribution. The solvated-to-free water ratios in NaCl, Na2SO4, and (NH4)2SO4 droplets are higher in the outer regions by about half a radius deep than at the center of the droplets.     

硫酸铵颗粒沉积作用下A3钢的大气腐蚀行为

在温度为298 K,相对湿度为(85±5)％的条件下,对硫酸铵颗粒沉积后的A3钢的大气腐蚀行为进行了研究.腐蚀动力学曲线表明,沉积硫酸铵颗粒的A3钢试样比其空白试样的腐蚀更为严重.用IR、SEM/EDAX以及XPS分析研究了不同周期试样的结构和形貌,发现腐蚀主要沿着硫酸铵颗粒沉积的地方进行,随着腐蚀时间的延长,逐渐生成碱式硫酸铁盐,这些腐蚀产物减缓了A3钢腐蚀的速度.对硫酸铵颗粒沉积条件下A3钢的腐蚀机理进行了讨论.     

Raman observation of the interactions between NH4+, SO4(2-), and H2O in supersaturated (NH4)2SO4 droplets

High signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) Raman spectra of (NH(4))(2)SO(4) droplets deposited on a quartz substrate were obtained from dilute to supersaturated states upon decreasing the relative humidity (RH). When the molar water-to-solute ratio (WSR) decreases from 16.8 to 3.2, the v(1)-SO(4)(2-) band changes very little, that is, showing a red-shift of only about 1 cm(-1) (from 979.9 to 978.8 cm(-1)) and an increase of its full width at half-maximum (fwhm) from 8.3 to 9.8 cm(-1). Other vibration modes such as v(2)- and v(4)-SO(4)(2-) bands appear almost constantly at 452 and 615 cm(-1). Such kind of a spectroscopic characteristic is different from previous observation on other cations, indicating that the interactions between SO(4)(2-) and NH(4)+ in supersaturated states are similar to those between SO(4)(2-) and H(2)O in dilute states. After fitting the Raman spectra with Gaussian functions in the spectral range of 2400-4000 cm(-1), we successfully extracted six components at positions of 2878.7, 3032.1, 3115.0, 3248.9, 3468.4, and 3628.8 cm(-1), respectively. The first three components are assigned to the second overtone of NH(4)+ umbrella bending, the combination band of NH(4)+ umbrella bending and rocking vibrations, and the NH(4)+ symmetric stretching vibration, while the latter three components are from the strongly, weakly, and slightly hydrogen-bonded components of water molecules, respectively. With a decrease of the RH, the proportion of the strongly hydrogen-bonded components increases, while that of the weakly hydrogen-bonded components decreases in the droplets. The coexistence of strongly, weakly, and slightly hydrogen-bonded water molecules must hint at a similar hydrogen-bonding network of NH(4)+, SO(4)(2-), and H(2)O to that of pure liquid water in supersaturated (NH(4))(2)SO(4) droplets.     

Vibrational spectra of mono, di and trimethyl ammonium double sulphates of rare earths Pr, Nd, Ho and Eu

Infrared and Raman spectra of four rare earth (Ho, Eu, Nd and Pr) double sulphates have been recorded and analysed based on the vibrations of methyl ammonium cations, sulphate anions and water molecules. Formation of hydrogen bonds of the type N-H...O and O-H...O are identified in all the compounds. Bifurcated hydrogen bonds are present in the compounds with dimethyl ammonium cations. The sulphate anions are distorted and occupy a lower site symmetry in the compounds. The bands obtained for (CH(3))(2)NH(2) and SO(4)(2-) ions indicate that the structural bonding of (CH(3))(2)NH(2)Eu(SO(4))(2).H(2)O and (CH(3))(2)NH(2)Ho(SO(4))(2).4H(2)O is identical. Electronic transition bands of Eu(3+) and Nd(3+) observed in the Raman spectra of these two compounds have been identified and discussed.     

Bond energies and structures of ammonia-sulfuric acid positive cluster ions

New particle formation in the atmosphere is initiated by nucleation of gas-phase species. The small molecular clusters that act as seeds for new particles are stabilized by the incorporation of an ion. Ion-induced nucleation of molecular cluster ions containing sulfuric acid generates new particles in the background troposphere. The addition of a proton-accepting species to sulfuric acid cluster ions can further stabilize them and may promote nucleation under a wider range of conditions. To understand and accurately predict atmospheric nucleation, the stabilities of each molecular cluster within a chemical family must be known. We present the first comprehensive measurements of the ammonia-sulfuric acid positive ion cluster system NH(4)(+)(NH(3))(n)(H(2)SO(4))(s). Enthalpies and entropies of individual growth steps within this system were measured using either an ion flow reactor-mass spectrometer system under equilibrium conditions or by thermal decomposition of clusters in an ion trap mass spectrometer. Low level ab initio structural calculations provided inputs to a master equation model to determine bond energies from thermal decomposition measurements. Optimized ab initio structures for clusters up through n = 3, s = 3 are reported. Upon addition of ammonia and sulfuric acid pairs, internal proton transfer generates multiple NH(4)(+) and HSO(4)(-) ions within the clusters. These multiple-ion structures are up to 50 kcal mol(-1) more stable than corresponding isomers that retain neutral NH(3) and H(2)SO(4) species. The lowest energy n = s clusters are composed entirely of ions. The addition of acid-base pairs to the core NH(4)(+) ion generates nanocrystals that begin to resemble the ammonium bisulfate bulk crystal starting with the smallest n = s cluster, NH(4)(+)(NH(3))(1)(H(2)SO(4))(1). In the absence of water, this cluster ion system nucleates spontaneously for conditions that encompass most of the free troposphere.     

SO_2在ZnO颗粒物表面的非均相反应

使用原位漫反射红外傅里叶变换光谱(DRIFTS)研究了SO2在ZnO颗粒物表面的非均相反应,考察了相对湿度(RH)及紫外光光照对反应的影响.结果表明:无紫外光光照条件下,SO2在ZnO颗粒物表面反应的主要产物为亚硫酸盐,RH与生成的亚硫酸盐量呈负相关关系;有紫外光光照条件下,SO2在ZnO颗粒物表面反应的主要产物为亚硫酸盐和硫酸盐,随着相对湿度和紫外光照强度的增加,亚硫酸盐向硫酸盐转化.光照和水汽对SO2在ZnO颗粒物上的氧化反应起到协同促进作用.以亚硫酸盐生成量计算,干态无光条件下反应对SO2的级数为1.6,接近二级反应;在RH为40%且紫外光光照条件下,反应对SO2的级数为0.91,接近一级反应;使用BET比表面积作为反应有效面积,反应初始摄取系数在干态无光照条件和RH=40%且紫外光照条件下分别为4.87×10-6和2.29×10-5.     

Adsorption of sulfur dioxide on hematite and goethite particle surfaces

The adsorption of sulfur dioxide (SO(2)) on iron oxide particle surfaces at 296 K has been investigated using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). A custom-designed XPS ultra-high vacuum chamber was coupled to an environmental reaction chamber so that the effects of adsorbed water and molecular oxygen on the reaction of SO(2) with iron oxide surfaces could be followed at atmospherically relevant pressures. In the absence of H(2)O and O(2), exposure of hematite (alpha-Fe(2)O(3)) and goethite (alpha-FeOOH) to SO(2) resulted predominantly in the formation of adsorbed sulfite (SO(3)(2-)), although evidence for adsorbed sulfate (SO(4)(2-)) was also found. At saturation, the coverage of adsorbed sulfur species was the same on both alpha-Fe(2)O(3) and alpha-FeOOH as determined from the S2p : Fe2p ratio. Equivalent saturation coverages and product ratios of sulfite to sulfate were observed on these oxide surfaces in the presence of water vapor at pressures between 6 and 18 Torr, corresponding to 28 to 85% relative humidity (RH), suggesting that water had no effect on the adsorption of SO(2). In contrast, molecular oxygen substantially influenced the interactions of SO(2) with iron oxide surfaces, albeit to a much larger extent on alpha-Fe(2)O(3) relative to alpha-FeOOH. For alpha-Fe(2)O(3), adsorption of SO(2) in the presence of molecular oxygen resulted in the quantitative formation of SO(4)(2-) with no detectable SO(3)(2-). Furthermore, molecular oxygen significantly enhanced the extent of SO(2) uptake on alpha-Fe(2)O(3), as indicated by the greater than two-fold increase in the S2p : Fe2p ratio. Although SO(2) uptake is still enhanced on alpha-Fe(2)O(3) in the presence of molecular oxygen and water, the enhancement factor decreases with increasing RH. In the case of alpha-FeOOH, there is an increase in the amount of SO(4)(2-) in the presence of molecular oxygen, however, the predominant surface species remained SO(3)(2-) and there is no enhancement in SO(2) uptake as measured by the S2p : Fe2p ratio. A mechanism involving molecular oxygen activation on oxygen vacancy sites is proposed as a possible explanation for the non-photochemical oxidation of sulfur dioxide on iron oxide surfaces. The concentration of these sites depends on the exact environmental conditions of RH.     

SO_2在TiO_2颗粒物表面的非均相反应

使用漫反射红外傅里叶变换光谱(DRIFTS)原位反应器研究了SO2在TiO2颗粒物表面的非均相反应.研究了氧气浓度、相对湿度(RH)及紫外光光照对反应的影响.结果表明,SO2在TiO2颗粒物上可转化为亚硫酸盐或被氧化为硫酸盐.水汽或者紫外光照可促进SO2在TiO2颗粒物表面的非均相氧化反应,在两者都存在的情况下,对促进硫酸盐的生成有协同效应.在干态无光照条件下和一定湿度(RH=40%)紫外光照条件下,以硫酸盐的生成来计算,SO2在TiO2颗粒物表面的反应级数分别为二级和一级;反应摄取系数γBET分别为1.94×10-6和1.35×10-5.TiO2颗粒物表面的羟基参与了反应,在紫外光照下表面生成的活性氧物种在反应中起重要作用.     

Air-liquid interfaces of aqueous solutions containing ammonium and sulfate: spectroscopic and molecular dynamics studies

Investigations of the air-liquid interface of aqueous salt solutions containing ammonium (NH(4)(+)) and sulfate (SO(4)(2-)) ions were carried out using molecular dynamics simulations and vibrational sum frequency generation spectroscopy. The molecular dynamics simulations show that the predominant effect of SO(4)(2-) ions, which are strongly repelled from the surface, is to increase the thickness of the interfacial region. The vibrational spectra reported are in the O-H stretching region of liquid water. Isotropic Raman and ATR-FTIR (attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared) spectroscopies were used to study the effect of ammonium and sulfate ions on the bulk structure of water, whereas surface sum frequency generation spectroscopy was used to study the effect of these ions on the interfacial structure of water. Analysis of the interfacial and bulk vibrational spectra reveal that aqueous solutions containing SO(4)(2-) perturb the interfacial water structure differently than the bulk and, consistent with the molecular dynamics simulations, reveal an increase in the thickness of the interfacial region.