Extremely low surface recombination in 1 Ω cm n‐type monocrystalline silicon

A key requirement in the recent development of highly efficient silicon solar cells is the outstanding passivation of their surfaces. In this work, plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition of a triple layer dielectric consisting of amorphous silicon, silicon oxide and silicon nitride, charged extrinsically using corona, has been used to demonstrate extremely low surface recombination. Assuming Richter's parametrisation for bulk lifetime, an effective surface recombination velocity S_eff = 0.1 cm/s at Δn = 10¹⁵ cm^–3 has been obtained for planar, float zone, n ‐type, 1 Ω cm silicon. This equates to a saturation current density J_0s = 0.3 fA/cm², and a 1‐sun implied open‐circuit voltage of 738 mV. These surface recombination parameters are among the lowest reported for 1 Ω cm c‐Si. A combination of impedance spectroscopy and corona‐lifetime measurements shows that the outstanding chemical passivation is due to the small hole capture cross section for states at the interface between the Si and a‐Si layer which are hydrogenated during nitride deposition. (© 2016 The Authors. Phys. Status Solidi RRL published by WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Influence of precursor gas ratio and firing on silicon surface passivation by APCVD aluminium oxide

Using a high throughput, in‐line atmosphere chemical vapor deposition (APCVD) tool, we have synthesized amorphous aluminum oxide (AlO_x) films from precursors of trimethyl‐aluminum (TMA) and O₂, yielding a maximum deposition 150 nm min^–1 per wafer. For p‐type crystalline silicon (c‐Si) wafers, excellent surface passivation was achieved with the APCVD AlO_x films, with a best maximum effective surface recombination velocity (S_eff,max) of 8 cm/s following a standard industrial firing step. The findings could be attributed to the existence of large negative charge (Q_f ≈ –3 × 10¹² cm^–2) and low interface defect density (D_it ≈ 4 × 10¹¹ eV^–1 cm^–2) achieved by the films. This data demonstrates a high potential for APCVD AlO_x to be used in high efficiency, low cost industrial solar cells. (© 2013 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Excellent Si surface passivation by low temperature SiO2 using an ultrathin Al2O3 capping film

It is demonstrated that the application of an ultrathin aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) capping film can improve the level of silicon surface passivation obtained by low‐temperature synthesized SiO₂ profoundly. For such stacks, a very high level of surface passivation was achieved after annealing, with S_eff < 2 cm/s for 3.5 Ω cm n‐type c‐Si. This can be attributed primarily to a low interface defect density (D_it < 10¹¹ eV^–1 cm^–2). Consequently, the Al₂O₃ capping layer induced a high level of chemical passivation at the Si/SiO₂ interface. Moreover, the stacks showed an exceptional stability during high‐temperature firing processes and therefore provide a low temperature (≤400 °C) alternative to thermally‐grown SiO₂. (© 2011 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

19.4%‐efficient large‐area fully screen‐printed silicon solar cells

We demonstrate industrially feasible large‐area solar cells with passivated homogeneous emitter and rear achieving energy conversion efficiencies of up to 19.4% on 125 × 125 mm² p‐type 2–3 Ω cm boron‐doped Czochralski silicon wafers. Front and rear metal contacts are fabricated by screen‐printing of silver and aluminum paste and firing in a conventional belt furnace. We implement two different dielectric rear surface passivation stacks: (i) a thermally grown silicon dioxide/silicon nitride stack and (ii) an atomic‐layer‐deposited aluminum oxide/silicon nitride stack. The dielectrics at the rear result in a decreased surface recombination velocity of S_rear = 70 cm/s and 80 cm/s, and an increased internal IR reflectance of up to 91% corresponding to an improved J_sc of up to 38.9 mA/cm² and V_oc of up to 664 mV. We observe an increase in cell efficiency of 0.8% absolute for the cells compared to 18.6% efficient reference solar cells featuring a full‐area aluminum back surface field. To our knowledge, the energy conversion efficiency of 19.4% is the best value reported so far for large area screen‐printed solar cells. (© 2011 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Low‐thermal budget flash light annealing for Al2O3 surface passivation

This value is achieved due to a very low interface trap density of below 10¹⁰ eV^–1 cm^–2 and a fixed charge density of (2–3) × 10¹² cm^–2. In contrast, plasma ALD‐grown Al₂O₃ layers only reach carrier lifetimes of about 1 ms. This is mainly caused by a more than 10 times higher density of interface traps, and thus, inferior chemical passivation. The strong influence of the deposition parameters is explained by the limitation of hydrogen transport in Al₂O₃ during low‐thermal budget annealing. (© 2015 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH &Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Plasma enhanced atomic layer deposition of gallium oxide on crystalline silicon: demonstration of surface passivation and negative interfacial charge

Herein we report on the passivation of crystalline silicon by gallium oxide (Ga₂O₃) using oxygen plasma as the oxidizing reactant in an atomic layer deposition (ALD) process. Excess carrier lifetimes of 2.1 ms have been measured on 1.75 Ω cm p‐type silicon, from which a surface recombination current density J₀ of 7 fA cm^–2 is extracted. From high frequency capacitance‐voltage (HF CV) measurements it is shown that, as in the case of Al₂O₃, the presence of a high negative charge density Q_tot/q of up to –6.2 × 10¹² cm^–2 is one factor contributing to the passivation of silicon by Ga₂O₃. Defect densities at midgap on the order of ～5 × 10¹¹ eV^–1 cm^–2 are extracted from the HF CV data on samples annealed at 300 °C for 30 minutes in a H₂/Ar ambient, representing an order of magnitude reduction in the defect density compared to pre‐anneal data. Passivation of a boron‐diffused p⁺ surface (96 Ω/□) is also demonstrated, resulting in a J₀ of 52 fA cm^–2. (© 2015 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH &Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

High mobility In2O3:H transparent conductive oxides prepared by atomic layer deposition and solid phase crystallization

The preparation of high‐quality In₂O₃:H, as transparent conductive oxide (TCO), is demonstrated at low temperatures. Amorphous In₂O₃:H films were deposited by atomic layer deposition at 100 °C, after which they underwent solid phase crystallization by a short anneal at 200 °C. TEM analysis has shown that this approach can yield films with a lateral grain size of a few hundred nm, resulting in electron mobility values as high as 138 cm²/V s at a device‐relevant carrier density of 1.8 × 10²⁰ cm^–3. Due to the extremely high electron mobility, the crystallized films simultaneously exhibit a very low resistivity (0.27 mΩ cm) and a negligible free carrier absorption. In conjunction with the low temperature processing, this renders these films ideal candidates for front TCO layers in for example silicon heterojunction solar cells and other sensitive optoelectronic applications. (© 2014 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH &Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Influence of polarity inversion on the electrical properties of Ga‐doped ZnO thin films

This study investigates how polarity inversion influences the relationship between the electrical properties of heavily Ga‐doped ZnO (GZO) films deposited by RF magnetron sputtering and their thickness. The electrical properties observed in very thin films are correlated with a change of polarity from O‐polar to Zn‐polar face upon increasing the film thickness based on results of valence band spectra measured by X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy. It is found that the electrical properties of very thin GZO films deposited on Zn‐polar ZnO templates are significantly improved compared to those deposited on O‐polar face. A low resistivity of 2.62 × 10^–4 Ω cm, high Hall mobility of 26.9 cm²/V s, and high carrier concentration of 8.87 × 10²⁰ cm^–3 being achieved with 30 nm‐thick GZO films using Zn‐polar ZnO templates on a glass substrate. In contrast, the resistivity of 30 nm‐thick GZO films on bare glass that shows more likely O‐polar is very poor about 1.44 × 10^–3 Ω cm with mobility and carrier concentration are only 11.9 cm²/V s and 3.64 × 10²⁰ cm^–3, respectively. It is therefore proposed that polarity inversion plays an important role in determining the electrical properties of extremely thin GZO films. (© 2016 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH &Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Silicon‐doping induced strain of AlN layers: a comparative luminescence and Raman study

Si‐doped aluminum nitride layers show a shift of the near‐band‐edge luminescence at around 6 eV to lower energies for increasing Si concentration up to ≈(1–3) × 10¹⁹ cm^–3. For higher concentrations, the luminescence shifts back to higher energies. This behavior is compared to concomitant shifts of the Raman‐active E₂ vibrational mode and to X‐ray diffraction data. It can be explained in terms of increasing tensile strain which finally relaxes due to the formation of cracks. (© 2008 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Hole mobility and remote scattering in strained InGaSb quantum well MOSFET channels with Al2O3 oxide

Hall mobility and major scattering mechanisms in surface and buried MBE grown strained InGaSb quantum well (QW) MOSFET channels with in‐situ grown Al₂O₃ gate oxide are analyzed as a function of sheet hole density, top‐barrier thickness and temperature. Mobility dependence on Al_0.8Ga_0.2Sb top‐barrier thickness shows that the relative contribution of interface‐related scattering is as low as ～30% in the surface QW channel. An InAs top capping layer reduces the interface scattering even further; the sample with 3 nm total top‐barrier thickness demonstrates mobility of 980 cm²/Vs giving sheet resistance of 4.3 kΩ/sq, very close to the minimum QW resistance in the bulk. The mobility–temperature dependences indicate that the interface‐related scattering is dominated by remote Coulomb scattering at hole densities <1 × 10¹² cm^–2. (© 2013 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Microstructure and phase composition of a zirconium coating-silicon substrate system treated using high-current electron beams

The results of structural-phase conversions in a zirconium coating-silicon substrate system treated with low-energy high-current electron beams (LHEBs) are presented. It is revealed that the action of LHEBs with energy densities of 8–10 J/cm² leads to the formation of a eutectic layer containing clusters with a characteristic size of 40–50 nm (the melt of ZrSi₂ and silicon) at the zirconium-silicon interface. After the energy density reaches 12 J/cm², silicon dendrites and regions of silicide crystallites are formed in the surface layer 20–30 μm thick. Data on the characteristic sizes of dendrites and eutectic clusters have made it possible to perform numerical estimation of the surface-melt overcooling (12–25 K), the temperature gradients (3.7 × 10⁷?1.6 × 10⁸ K/m), and the interphase boundary velocity (0.8?3.2 × 10^?4 m/s).     

The interaction of Ag with Si(111)

Deposits of Ag on Si(111), at room temperature, have yielded a linear Auger signal-time characteristic to a gradient break point at (7.6 ± 0.9) × 10¹⁴ atoms ofAg cm^?2, which is very close to the Si surface state density of (8–10) × 10¹⁴ cm^?2, and which supports a Stranski-Krastanov growth mechanism. Analysis of the Auger spectra at the monolayer end point revealed a new peak at 82 ± 1 eV. This peak is believed to arise from an Auger process involving an induced Ag-Si interface state. A model is proposed for this state arising from the chemisorption of Ag on Si.     

Space charge and surface state characteristics of the silicon/electrolyte interface

The essentially blocking nature of the silicon/electrolyte (S/E) interface enables charge to be induced electrostatically at the interface by an applied bias. The use of pulsed rather than DC biases provides a fairly detailed picture of the silicon interface. The results reported here concern the silicon space-charge layer, localized states at the S/E interface and charge leakage across the interface. As to the first, evidence is presented that strong, quantized accumulation layers of excess surface-electron densities as high as 10¹⁴ cm⁻² can be induced at the Si surface, an order of magnitude larger that can be attained in Si inversion layers in MOS structures. The localized states are of total density of about 10¹² cm⁻² and of capture cross sections around 5 × 10⁻¹⁸ cm². The nature of these states is not known; they are probably fast surface states at the silicon surface. The charge leakage occurs under strong accumulation conditions, very likely by electron tunneling from the silicon electrode into the electrolyte. It takes place practically instantaneously, but the leaked charge remains stored near the interface for a considerable time. Some suggestions concerning this unexpected behavior are put forward.     

Rapid crystallization of silicon films using Joule heating of metal films

50-nm thick amorphous silicon films formed on glass substrates were crystallized by rapid Joule heating induced by an electrical current flowing in 100-nm-thick Cr strips formed adjacently to 200-nm-thick SiO₂ intermediate layers. 3-μs-pulsed voltages were applied to the Cr strips. Melting of the Cr strips caused a high Joule heating intensity of about 1×10⁶ W/cm². Raman scattering measurements revealed complete crystallization of the silicon films at a Joule heating energy of 1.9 J/cm² via the SiO₂ intermediate layer. Transmission electron microscopy measurements confirmed a crystalline grain size of 50–100 nm. 1-μm-long crystalline grain growth was also observed just beneath the edge of the Cr strips. The electrical conductivity increased from 10^-5 S/cm to 0.3 S/cm for 7×10¹⁷-cm^-3-phosphorus-doped silicon films because of activation of the phosphorus atoms because of crystallization. The numerical analysis showed a density of localized defect states at the mid gap of 8.0×10¹⁷ cm^-3. Oxygen plasma treatment at 250 °C and 100 W for 5 min reduced the density of the defect states to 2.7×10¹⁷ cm^-3. Received: 3 April 2001 / Accepted: 9 April 2001 / Published online: 25 July 2001     

ZrO2 films deposited by photo-CVD at low temperatures

Zirconium oxide layers have been successfully deposited by photo-CVD at low temperatures. ZrO₂ growth was observed at temperatures as low as 100 °C. When deposited at 250 °C and above, these films exhibited a polycrystalline structure with a mixture of different crystal phases. Deposition at 300 °C was found to form moisture-free ZrO₂ films with a high refractive index of 2.1, a very low effective density of trapped electrons of ∼8.8×10⁸ cm^-2 and an interface trap density of 6.6×10⁹ cm^-2 eV^-1 being readily obtained. Received: 17 December 2001 / Accepted: 6 January 2002 / Published online: 3 June 2002     

Influence of ion-irradiation parameters on defect formation in silicon films

It is shown that unlike bulk silicon, for which amorphization is observed at an irradiation dose of 5 × 10¹⁶ ion/cm², thin silicon films on sapphire are amorphized at lower critical doses (10¹⁵ ion/cm²). An undamaged surface layer remains when the silicon films are irradiated with Si⁺ ion beams. Its thickness depends on the current density of the incident beam. Rutherford backscattering studies show that annealing at 950°C improves the crystallinity of the irradiated silicon film. Annealing of the films at 1100°C leads to mixing of the silicon-sapphire interface.     

µ−spin rotation study of the temperature-dependent relaxation rate of acceptor centers in silicon

Temperature-dependent remanent polarization of negative muons in a silicon crystal doped with phosphorus (3.2 × 10¹², 2.3 × 10¹⁵, and 4.5 × 10¹⁸ cm^?3) and aluminum (2 × 10¹⁴ and 2.4 × 10¹⁸ cm^?3) was examined. Measurements were made over the temperature range 4–300 K in a magnetic field of 2000 G perpendicular to the muon spin. Temperature dependence of the relaxation rate was determined for the magnetic moment of a shallow Al acceptor center in a nondeformed silicon sample, and the hyperfine interaction constant was estimated for the interaction between the magnetic moments of muon and electron shell of the muonic mAl atom in silicon.     

Effects of silicon negative ion implantation in semi-insulating gallium arsenide

ABSTRACT

In the present work, effects of silicon negative ion implantation into semi-insulating gallium arsenide (GaAs) samples with fluences varying between 1?×?10¹⁵ and 4?×?10¹⁷?ions?cm^?2 at 100?keV have been described. Atomic force microscopic images obtained from samples implanted with fluence up to 1?×?10¹⁷?ion?cm^?2 showed the formation of GaAs clusters on the surface of the sample. The shape, size and density of these clusters were found to depend on ion fluence. Whereas sample implanted at higher fluence of 4?×?10¹⁷?ions?cm^?2 showed bump of arbitrary shapes due to cumulative effect of multiple silicon ion impact with GaAs on the same place. GXRD study revealed formation of silicon crystallites in the gallium arsenide sample after implantation. The silicon crystallite size estimated from the full width at half maxima of silicon (111) XRD peak using Debye-Scherrer formula was found to vary between 1.72 and 1.87?nm with respect to ion fluence. Hall measurement revealed the formation of n-type layer in gallium arsenide samples. The current–voltage measurement of the sample implanted with different fluences exhibited the diode like behavior.     

Photon beam softening coefficients evaluation for a 6 MeV photon beam for an aluminum slab: Monte Carlo study using BEAMnrc Code,DOSXYZnrc Code,and BEAMDP code

Determination and understanding the photon beam attenuation by the photon beam modifier and the radiation beam softening for clinical use is more important part of material study for the beam modifier enhancements and the linac improvements. A Monte Carlo model was used to simulate 6 MeV photon beams from a Varian Clinac 2100 accelerator with the flattening filter and the later was replaced by the aluminum slab with variable thickness. The Monte Carlo geometry was validated by a gamma index acceptance rate of 99% in PDD and 98% in dose profiles, the gamma criteria was 3% for dose difference and 3 mm for distance to agreement. The purpose was to investigate aluminum material attenuation and beam softening coefficients as a function of the inserted aluminum slab thickness and of off-axis distance. The attenuation and beam softening coefficients were not identical for the same off-axis distance and they varied as a function of aluminum slab thickness. The results of our study were shown that the beam softening coefficients were varied with thickness beam modifier material used for beam softening and the off-axis distance inside the irradiation field. Thereafter, the softening coefficient a ₁ have a maximum of 2.5 × 10^–1 cm^–1 for the aluminum slab thickness of 1 mm, 1.4 × 10^–1 cm^–1 for the aluminum slab thickness of 1.5 mm and 4.47 × 10^–2 cm^–1 for the aluminum slab thickness of 2 mm. The maximum of the second softening coefficient a ₂ was 1.02 × 10^–2 cm^–2 for the aluminum slab thickness of 1 mm, was 1.92 × 10^–2 cm^–2 for the aluminum slab thickness of 1.5 mm and was 1.93 × 10^–2 cm^–2 for the aluminum slab thickness of 2 mm. Our study can be a basic investigation of photon beam softening material that will be used in the future linac configuration and also in the photon beam modifiers.     

离子注入形成SOI结构的界面及埋层的俄歇能谱研究

本文中研究了O⁺(200keV,1.8×10¹⁸/cm²)和N⁺(190keV,1.8×10¹⁸/cm²)注入Si形成SOI(Silicon on Insulator)结构的界面及埋层的化学组成。俄歇能谱的测量和研究结果表明:注O⁺的SOI结构在经1300℃,5h退火后,其表层Si和氧化硅埋层的界面存在一个不饱和氧化硅状态,氧化硅埋层是由SiO₂相和这不饱和氧化硅态组成,而且氧化硅埋层和体硅界面不同于表层Si和氧化硅埋层界面;注N⁺的SOI结构在经1200℃,2h退火后,其氮化硅埋层中存在一个富N的疏松夹层,表层Si和氮化硅埋层界面与氮化硅埋层和体硅界面性质亦不同。这些结果与红外吸收和透射电子显微镜及离子背散射谱的分析结果相一致。还对两种SOI结构界面与埋层的不同特征的原因进行了分析讨论。 关键词：