Time-gated fluorescence spectroscopy of porphyrin derivatives incorporated into cells

Time-gated fluorescence spectroscopy was performed on the tumour-localizing fraction (TLF) of haematoporphyrin derivative (HPD) incorporated into cells. Three different cell lines were incubated with 20 and 5 micrograms ml-1 of TLF for various time periods; they were then washed and resuspended in buffer. Fluorescence decay measurements and time-integrated and time-gated spectra were then obtained from the cell suspensions. Similar experiments were repeated using HPD containing 60% of the active material. The experimental results show a modification of the emission spectra for both drugs depending on the incubation time; this modification is more significant for the TLF. In particular, the emission peak observed in aqueous solution at 615 nm is shifted to 630 nm as a consequence of incorporation into cells, and the gated spectra indicate that the fluorescence emission is mainly related to monomers and unfolded polymeric chains. The ratio between the intensities of the two peaks depends on the relative amount of the TLF; the peak at 615 nm is more pronounced for HPD. The results obtained seem to indicate that both the composition of the drug and the metabolic properties of the biological environment strongly influence the uptake process and the fluorescence behaviour of the incorporated sensitizer.     

Triplet-state photophysics of aluminium phthalocyanine sensitizer in murine cancer cells

Diffuse-reflectance laser flash photolysis has been used to record transient spectra and decay kinetics of the photodynamic therapy sensitizer disulfonated aluminium phthalocyanine in two murine cancer cell lines, P815 derived from white mouse mast cells, and EL4, a lymphoblast derived from black mouse lymphocytes. In contrast to results with bacterial cells and yeasts, no transient other than the triplet state of the sensitizer was detected, suggesting that unlike the case in microbes, Type I electron-transfer processes play no role in the photodestruction of the murine cells studied.     

Preparative, analytical and fluorescence spectroscopic studies of sulphonated aluminium phthalocyanine photosensitizers

Fluorescence spectroscopic studies were carried out on aluminium phthalocyanine with defined numbers (mono, di, tri and tetra) of sulphonate groups. Selective sulphonation was achieved using one of two synthetic methods to prepare a mixture of components which were separated using reverse-phase liquid chromatography. Fluorescence lifetimes were measured in methanol and buffer solution using time-correlated single-photon counting with picosecond laser excitation; the lifetime shows little variation with the number of sulphonate groups. Using steady state excitation, fluorescence quantum yields were determined for the tetrasulphonated component (phi F = 0.51) and, for comparison, unsulphonated aluminium phthalocyanine.     

Comparison of the photophysics of an aggregating and non-aggregating aluminium phthalocyanine system incorporated into unilamellar vesicles

The hydrophobic sensitizer, aluminium phthalocyanine chloride (AIPcCI), and the amphiphilic sensitizer, cis-disulphonated aluminium phthalocyanine (cis-AIPcS₂), were incorporated into small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs) and large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs). AIPcCI exhibits aggregation, which increases with increasing sensitizer concentration, whereas cis-AlPcS₂ is monomeric at all concentrations studied. Complex fluorescence decays are observed, showing decay time distributions which broaden with increasing phthalocyanine concentration. The phthalocyanine aggregate, although non-fluorescent, influences the overall photophysical behaviour of the phthalocyanine-vesicle system. The effect of aggregation on the resulting photophysics of phthalocyanines was investigated by comparing aggregated and non-aggregated phthalocyanine systems. The implications for photodynamic therapy (PDT) are briefly discussed.     

Solvent effects on the photochemical and fluorescence properties of zinc phthalocyanine derivatives

The effects of solvents on the singlet oxygen, photobleaching and fluorescence quantum yields for zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPc) and its derivatives; (pyridino)zinc phthalocyanine ((py)ZnPc), zinc octaphenoxyphthalocyanine (ZnOPPc) and zinc octaestronephthalocyanine (ZnOEPc), is presented. The effects of the solvents on the ground state spectra are also discussed. The largest red shift of the Q band was observed in aromatic solvents, the highest shift being observed for 1-chloronaphthalene. Higher singlet fluorescence quantum yields were observed in THF for ZnPc and ZnOPPC. Also in the same solvent phototransformation rather than photobleaching was observed for ZnOPPc. Split Q band in the emission and excitation spectra of ZnOPPc was observed in some solvents and this is explained in terms of the lowering of symmetry following excitation.     

pH dependence of fluorescence and absorbance spectra of free sulphonated aluminium phthalocyanine and its conjugate with monoclonal antibodies.

Water-soluble phthalocyanines and phthalocyanines linked to targeting monoclonal antibodies are considered to be one of the most promising photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy. Here the spectrum characteristics of sulphonated aluminium phthalocyanine and its protein conjugate in the pH range 1.8-12.0 in solution have been studied. The pK values are determined.     

Broad-band spectroscopy of a vanadyl porphyrin: a model electronuclear spin qudit

We explore how to encode more than a qubit in vanadyl porphyrin molecules hosting a S = 1/2 electronic spin coupled to a I = 7/2 nuclear spin. The spin Hamiltonian and its parameters, as well as the spin dynamics, have been determined via a combination of electron paramagnetic resonance, heat capacity, magnetization and on-chip magnetic spectroscopy experiments performed on single crystals. We find low temperature spin coherence times of micro-seconds and spin relaxation times longer than a second. For sufficiently strong magnetic fields (B > 0.1 T, corresponding to resonance frequencies of 9–10 GHz) these properties make vanadyl porphyrin molecules suitable qubit realizations. The presence of multiple equispaced nuclear spin levels then merely provides 8 alternatives to define the ‘1’ and ‘0’ basis states. For lower magnetic fields (B < 0.1 T), and lower frequencies (<2 GHz), we find spectroscopic signatures of a sizeable electronuclear entanglement. This effect generates a larger set of allowed transitions between different electronuclear spin states and removes their degeneracies. Under these conditions, we show that each molecule fulfills the conditions to act as a universal 4-qubit processor or, equivalently, as a d = 16 qudit. These findings widen the catalogue of chemically designed systems able to implement non-trivial quantum functionalities, such as quantum simulations and, especially, quantum error correction at the molecular level.

We show that a sizeable electronuclear entanglement of the S = 1/2 and I = 7/2 spins of a vanadyl porphyrin provides the conditions to act as a universal 4-qubit processor, and thus implement quantum error correction at the molecular level.     

DFT and Raman spectroscopy of porphyrin derivatives: Tetraphenylporphine (TPP)

Raman spectrum of the meso tetraphenylporphine (TPP) deposited onto smooth copper surface as thin film were recorded in the region 200–1700 cm⁻¹. To investigate the effect of meso-phenyl substitution rings on the vibrational spectrum of free base porphyrin, we calculated Raman and infrared (IR) spectra of the meso-tetraphenylporphine (TPP), meso tetramethylporphine (TMP), copper (II)porphine (CuPr) and free base porphine (FBP) at the B3LYP/6-311+G(d,p) level of the density functional theory (DFT). The observed Raman spectrum of the TPP is assigned based on the calculated its Raman spectrum in connection with the calculated spectra of the TMP, CuPr and FBP by taking into account of their corresponding vibrational motions of the Raman modes of frequencies. Results of the calculations clearly indicated that the meso tetraphenyl substitution rings are totally responsible for the observed Raman bands at ∼1593, 1234 and 1002 cm⁻¹. The calculated and observed Raman spectra also suggested that the observed Raman band with a medium intense at 962 cm⁻¹ might result from the surface plasmon effect. Furthermore, the observed Raman bands with medium intense at ∼334 and ∼201 cm⁻¹ are as results of the dimerization or aggregation of the TPP or would be that related to intramolecular interaction. We also calculated IR spectra of these molecules at same level of the theory. To investigate the solvent effect on the vibrational spectrum of porphine, the Raman and IR spectra of the TPP and FBP are calculated in solution phase where water used as solvent. The results of these calculation indicated that there is no any significant effect on the vibrational spectrum of the TPP.     

Temporally and spatially heterogeneous distribution of mTHPC in a murine tumor observed by two-color confocal fluorescence imaging and spectroscopy in a whole-mount model

Efficient intratumor delivery of anticancer drugs and photosensitizers is an important factor in the success of chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy, respectively. Unfortunately, their adequate and uniform intratumor distribution is impeded by several physiological barriers and by binding to tissue components. Measurement of gross tumor drug accumulation is a routine method of investigating the uptake and clearance of chemotherapy agents and photosensitizers but tells little about their extravascular spatial distribution. We use whole-mount two-color confocal fluorescence imaging and imaging spectroscopy of unprocessed excised murine tumor fragments to investigate the intratumor distribution of the photosensitizer meso-tetrahydroxyphenyl chlorin (mTHPC) as a function of distance from blood vessels perfused with 0.2 mum diameter fluorescent microspheres. Significant mismatches between drug and perfused vasculature are caused by heterogeneities in tumor blood supply. We describe complex microscopic mTHPC gradients that reverse dramatically relative to the perfused vasculature with time after injection. This imaging technique can be applied to screen the dynamic intratumor distribution of other fluorescent photosensitizers and anticancer drugs.     

The role of electronic coupling in linear porphyrin arrays probed by single-molecule fluorescence spectroscopy

Single-molecule photophysical properties of two families of linear porphyrin arrays have been investigated by single-molecule fluorescence detection techniques. Butadiyne-linked arrays (Z(N)B) with extensive π-conjugation perform as photostable one-quantum systems. This demonstration has been suggested by the long-lasting initial emissive state and subsequent discrete one-step photobleaching in the fluorescence intensity trajectories (FITs). As in the behavior of a one-quantum system, Z(N)B shows anti-bunching data in the coincidence measurements. On the other hand, in directly-linked arrays (Z(N)) with strong dipole coupling, each porphyrin moiety keeps individual character in photobleaching dynamics. The stepwise photobleachings in the FITs account for this explanation. Most of the FITs of Z(N) do not carry momentary cessation of fluorescence emission, which has been explained by the strongly bound electron-hole pair of Frenkel exciton that suppresses charge transfer between the molecule and surrounding polymers. These results give insight into the influences of interchromophorinc interactions between porphyrin moieties in the multiporphyrin arrays on their fluorescence dynamics at the single-molecule level.     

Study of the interaction between N-confused porphyrin and bovine serum albumin by fluorescence spectroscopy

The fluorescence and ultraviolet spectroscopy were explored to study the interaction between N-confused porphyrins (NCP) and bovine serum albumin (BSA) under imitated physiological condition. The experimental results indicated that the fluorescence quenching mechanism between BSA and NCP was static quenching procedure at low NCP concentration at 293 and 305 K or a combined quenching (static and dynamic) procedure at higher NCP concentration at 305 K. The binding constants, binding sites and the corresponding thermodynamic parameters ΔH, ΔS, and ΔG were calculated at different temperatures. The comparison of binding potency of the three NCP to BSA showed that the substituting groups in benzene ring could enhance the binding affinity. From the thermodynamic parameters, we concluded that the action force was mainly hydrophobic interaction. The binding distances between NCP and BSA were calculated using F?rster non-radiation energy transfer theory. In addition, the effect of NCP on the conformation of BSA was analyzed using synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy.     

Some peculiarities of metal exchange reactions in porphyrin and phthalocyanine complexes

Kinetics of metal exchange reaction Cd(II) Zn(II) and Cd(II) Cu(II) in Cd complexes with tetraphenylporphyrin in DMSO is studied. Reaction with Cu(II) nitrate occurs in both cases more vigorously as compared to that with Zn(II) nitrate. Conditions for metal exchange reactions are studied depending on the nature of metal porphyrinate, a salt (nitrates, acetates, and chlorides of Zn(II), Cu(II), and Co(II), and of organic solvent (DMSO, CH₃CN). It is shown that Zn(II) complexes with nonplanar porphyrins do not show metal exchange Zn(II) Cu(II) or Zn(II) Co(II) under mild conditions in DMSO and CH₃CN.Translated from Koordinatsionnaya Khimiya, Vol. 31, No. 2, 2005, pp. 104–109. Original Russian Text Copyright © 2005 by D. Berezin, Shukhto, Nikolskaya, B. Berezin.     

Monitoring the accumulation of lipofuscin in aging murine eyes by fluorescence spectroscopy

The integrated fluorescence of murine eyes is collected as a function of age. This fluorescence is attributed to pigments generally referred to as lipofuscin and is observed to increase with age. No difference in fluorescence intensity is observed between the eyes of males or females. This work provides a benchmark for further studies that are planned in order to use such signatures as markers of central nervous system (CNS) tissue or even of diseased CNS tissue and provides a basis for determining the age of a healthy animal.     

Cobalt thin films on gold: A new reference material for the quantification of cobalt phthalocyanine and cobalt porphyrin modified gold electrodes with synchrotron radiation micro X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy

New reference materials consisting of cobalt thin films on gold were prepared by sputter deposition. The thickness and homogeneity of the films were characterized using synchrotron radiation micro-XRF. The samples can be used as reference materials to quantify cobalt phthalocyanine and cobalt porphyrin modified gold electrodes which have been analyzed with synchrotron radiation micro-XRF.     

Nanolayers of selected porphyrin and phthalocyanine dyes on solid substrates studied by electronic absorption and IR reflection–absorption spectroscopy

Electronic absorption and IR reflection–absorption spectra in non-polarized and in polarized light for lead porphyrin as well as magnesium and lead phthalocyanine dyes when deposited in the form of Langmuir–Blodgett (LB) nanolayers on solid inorganic surfaces (quartz, semiconductor and metal) were measured. Some IR bands of the Langmuir–Blodgett dye layers’ spectra show frequency shifts and changes in the relative intensities as well as in half widths when compared with the vibrational features of powdered dyes dispersed in KBr pellets, which were used as references. The FT-IR spectroscopic examination of the Langmuir–Blodgett layers allowed to estimate electron redistribution at the interface between dye layer and solid substrates. The Langmuir–Blodgett films of different thicknesses (3, 5, 10 layers) were studied at various angles of IR beam incidence and different light polarizations. The most spectacular results were obtained for the grazing incidence (80°) and films of 5 layers for dyes on the Au substrate. The IR spectroscopy was supported with electronic absorption studies (UV–vis) to follow interaction at interface between the dye layers and the substrates as well as to evaluate linear dichroism and to determine arrangement of molecules in the Langmuir–Blodgett films. Molecular arrangement in the Langmuir–Blodgett layers was discussed. It was shown that the dye molecular planes are rather randomly oriented in the Langmuir–Blodgett films with a tendency that the Q_y and Q_x transition moments in the phthalocyanine macroring are slightly directed along the y-axis (Langmuir–Blodgett dipping direction) and the x-axis direction, respectively.     

Twist angle dependent mesomerism and spectroscopy in substituted anilines: Absorption and fluorescence spectra of indoline derivatives as planar model compounds

Absorption and emission spectra of 5-cyano-N-alkyl-indolines have been compared to those of the corresponding p-cyano-N,N-dialkylanilines, and the red shift and anomalously low absorption coefficient of the indolines analysed in terms of a molecules-in-molecules (MIM) model. The widely applied cos² θ equation relating oscillator strength and intramolecular twist angle θ is shown to be inadequate for near planar geometries in this case.The observation of an isoemissive point in the fluorescence spectra of the indolines indicates the existence of a ground state conformational equilibrium. Fluorescence and excitation anisotropy are discussed in terms of a vibronic coupling mechanism.     

Novel porphyrin conjugates with a potent photodynamic antitumor effect: differential efficacy of mono- and bis-beta-cyclodextrin derivatives in vitro and in vivo

In the present study we investigated the photosensitizing properties of two novel mono- and bis-cyclodextrin tetrakis (pentafluorophenyl) porphyrin derivatives in several tumor cell lines and in BALB/c mice bearing subcutaneously transplanted syngeneic mouse mammary carcinoma 4T1. Both studied sensitizers were localized mainly in lysosomes and were found to induce cell death by triggering apoptosis in human leukemic cells HL-60. In 4T1 and other cell lines both apoptotic and necrotic modes of cell death occurred depending on drug and light doses. Mono-cyclodextrin porphyrin derivative P(beta-CD)1 exhibited stronger in vitro phototoxic effect than bis-cyclodextrin derivative P(beta-CD)2. However, in vivo P(beta-CD)2 displayed faster tumor uptake with maximal accumulation 6 h after application, leading to complete and prolonged elimination of subcutaneous tumors within 3 days after irradiation (100 J cm(-2)). In contrast, P(beta-CD)1 uptake was slower (48 h) and the reduction of tumor mass was only transient, reaching the maximum at the 12 h interval when a favorable tumor-to-skin ratio appeared. Thus, P(beta-CD)2 represents a new photosensitizing drug displaying fast and selective tumor uptake, strong antitumor activity and fast elimination from the body.     

Sensitive fluorimetric determination of formaldehyde by the co-quenching effect of formaldehyde and sulfite on the fluorescence of tetra-substituted amino aluminium phthalocyanine

A novel and sensitive fluorimetric method was developed for the determination of formaldehyde based on the co-quenching effect of formaldehyde and sulfite on the fluorescence of tetra-substituted amino aluminium phthalocyanine. Formaldehyde in the concentration range 0.040-1.19 micrograms ml-1 can be determined with a limit of detection of 7.5 ng ml-1. The relative standard deviation for nine replicate measurements of 80.0 ng ml-1 formaldehyde is 1.8%. The method was applied to the analysis of real samples with satisfactory results.