MEMS-Based Nanomechanics: Influence of MEMS Design on Test Temperature

Microelectromechanical system (MEMS) devices based on electro-thermal actuation have been used over the past few years to perform tensile tests on nanomaterials. However, previous MEMS designs only allowed small (e.g., <100 nm) total displacement range without a significant increase in temperature near the nanospecimens (<20°C), thereby limiting the design of the load sensor or the range of nanomaterials to test. Here we characterize the thermo-mechanical behavior of three MEMS devices, using optical displacement measurements, micro-Raman temperature measurements, and finite element modeling. We observe the increase in temperature near the nanospecimen gap per displacement of thermal actuator to linearly decrease with the distance between nanospecimen gap and thermal actuator. We also present a MEMS device that can provide up to 1.6 μm of total displacement with less than 10°C increase in temperature near the nanospecimens, more than one order of magnitude improvement with respect to previously published MEMS material testing setups. This MEMS device can be used for accurate, temperature-controlled tensile testing of nanocrystalline metallic nanobeams.     

A High-frequency High-temperature Optical Strain/Displacement Gage

This paper describes an optical method for measuring strain or crack-opening displacement at high frequencies (20 kHz) and high temperatures (590°C) on a near-real-time basis. Two small reflective markers are placed on a smooth specimen or across a crack. When illuminated with a laser, interference fringes are generated; their motion can be monitored with photomultiplier tubes. The data acquisition system acquires 200 points per 50 microsecond cycle. These are processed, displayed, and stored at a rate of 25 Hz. Applications are in the general area of very high cycle (10⁹ cycles or more) fatigue. Demonstration tests at 20 kHz at room temperature with a strain range of 0.45 percent and at 590°C with a range of 0.2 percent are presented along with room temperature displacements up to 0.7 μm across the center of a 1.4 mm long crack.     

基于光学和扫描显微平台的微尺度实验力学检测技术和装置研究

本文基于光学和扫描显微平台,介绍了本研究组在微尺度实验力学检测技术和设备方面的最新研究成果。在检测技术方面涉及显微散斑干涉技术、微标记阵列检测技术、晶粒变形分析技术、光学探针动静态变形分析技术;在检测系统和装置方面介绍了新近开发的双视场薄膜检测系统、散斑微干涉系统、微标记检测平台、AFM和SEM单轴拉伸装置、三维微定位与加载系统、微力传感器及其标定装置、微动平台驱动装置等。探讨了微尺度实验力学检测中的问题和新的检测技术,给出了一些典型的应用和相关装置。     

Experimental Investigation of Strain Rate Dependence of Nanocrystalline Pt Films

A new microscale uniaxial tension experimental method was developed to investigate the strain rate dependent mechanical behavior of freestanding metallic thin films for MEMS. The method allows for highly repeatable mechanical testing of thin films for over eight orders of magnitude of strain rate. Its repeatability stems from the direct and full-field displacement measurements obtained from optical images with at least 25 nm displacement resolution. The method is demonstrated with micron-scale, 400-nm thick, freestanding nanocrystalline Pt specimens, with 25 nm grain size. The experiments were conducted in situ under an optical microscope, equipped with a digital high-speed camera, in the nominal strain rate range 10⁻⁶–10¹ s⁻¹. Full field displacements were computed by digital image correlation using a random speckle pattern generated onto the freestanding specimens. The elastic modulus of Pt, E = 182 ± 8 GPa, derived from uniaxial stress vs. strain curves, was independent of strain rate, while its Poisson’s ratio was v = 0.41 ± 0.01. Although the nanocrystalline Pt films had the elastic properties of bulk Pt, their inelastic property values were much higher than bulk and were rate-sensitive over the range of loading rates. For example, the elastic limit increased by more than 110% with increasing strain rate, and was 2–5 times higher than bulk Pt reaching 1.37 GPa at 10¹ s⁻¹.     

The Development of a High Rate Tensile Testing System for Micro Scaled Single Crystal Silicon Specimens

Structures have been built at micro scales with unique failure mechanisms that are not yet understood, in particular, under high-rate loading conditions. Consequently, microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) devices can suffer from inconsistent performance and insufficient reliability. This research aims to understand the failure mechanisms in micro-scaled specimens deforming at high rates. Single-crystal silicon (SCS) micro specimens that are 4 μm thick are subjected to tensile loading at an average strain rate of 92 s^?1 using a miniature Hopkinson tension bar. A capacitance displacement system and piezoelectric load cell are incorporated to directly measure the strain and stress of the silicon micro specimens. The average dynamic elastic modulus of the silicon micro specimens is measured to be 226.8?±?18.50 GPa and the average dynamic tensile strength of the silicon is measured to be 1.26?±?0.310 GPa. High-speed images show that extensive fragmentation of the specimens occurs during tensile failure.     

Measuring the Elastic Properties of Freestanding Thick Films Using a Nanoindenter-Based Bending Test

Films with thickness ranging from 10 to 100 μm are increasingly being used as the structural components of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). Measuring the mechanical properties of these thick films is essential for enabling the design of MEMS with high performance and sufficient reliability. In this paper, we present a simple and convenient method for measuring the elastic modulus of thick films by loading a clamped circular film using a spherical tip. The test is implemented using a commercial nanoindenter so that the load and displacement can be measured with resolution of micronewtons and nanometers, respectively. Robust protocols have been developed for implementing the test within the constraints imposed by the nanoindenter. A crucial component of these protocols is a method for selecting loads to ensure deformation in the elastic bending regime and to minimize the relative contribution of contact indentation. The accuracy and utility of the nanoindenter-based bending test are discussed using measurements on thick films of aluminum and a standard epoxy.     

微尺度位移、形貌测量系统及应用

研制了一套可应用于MEMS器件的微尺度测量系统，可以在受载状态下实时检测MEMS器件的面内位移、离面位移和三维形貌。该系统中，面内位移测量是一个基于白光数字散斑相关方法的显微光学测量系统，与相应的力学加载系统结合，可以得到MEMS器件在受载状态下的实时面内位移；离面位移和三维形貌测量则是一个基于相移显微投影光栅方法的光学测量系统，与相应的力学加载系统结合，可以得到MEMS器件在受载状态下的实时三维形貌和离面位移。最后给出了几个典型的MEMS器件面内位移、离面位移和三维形貌的实测结果。     

Micro-interferometry for measurement of thermal displacements at fiber/matrix interfaces

A micro-interferometric technique for measuring out-of-plane thermal displacements on a scale commensurate with the dimensions of the fiber/matrix unit cell is described. A scanning micro-interferometer is used to image surface displacements of samples containing a single-pitch-based carbon fiber embedded in an epoxy matrix. The interferometer design gives the necessary resolution to detect small changes in thermal displacements in the fiber/matrix interface region. The samples were heated electrically through the fiber to create radially symmetric temperature and displacement fields. Repeatable displacement measurements were obtained on a radial line across the interface region with an accuracy of ±25 Å. A sharp expansion of the matrix surrounding the fiber was observed with each heating. Overall, the experiments demonstrate the utility of micro-interferometry for measuring submicron displacements.     

考虑表面效应的双层圆板的自由振动分析

考虑微生化传感器中谐振器的结构特点,基于Kirchhoff薄板理论与表面弹性理论推导了考虑表面效应的双层圆板的自由振动方程.使用伽辽金法得到了近似解.分析了硬化与软化表面效应与表面残余应力对双层圆板固有频率的影响.结果表明,与已有简化的单层圆板模型相比,现有考虑表面效应的双层板模型会得到与之不同的固有频率.随着板厚与上下两层板厚度比的变化,单层板模型预测的结果会比实际值偏大或者偏小,将无法为传感器膜片的研究与设计提供准确的理论值.对具有双层结构的传感器膜片的理论研究,使用现有模型得到的结果更加准确.     

A New Methodology for Uniaxial Tensile Testing of Free-Standing Thin Films at High Strain-Rates

The investigation of strain-rate effects on the mechanical response and characteristics of thin free-standing films is crucial for the design and fabrication of more reliable MEMS devices. It is also of high interest from the scientific and materials engineering views. In this paper we present a novel apparatus and a procedure for tensile testing of thin free-standing films under a wide range of strain rates from quasistatic to high, almost comparable with those obtained in Hopkinson bar tests. To provide this capability, a unique displacement measurement method is applied and a micro device which meets several strict requirements is implemented. We describe recent results of quasistatic experiments performed on pure aluminum free-standing thin films. A high rate experiment which demonstrates the setup capabilities is also presented. The micro-device measured properties are compared with finite element analysis results.     

Phase Behaviour,Fluid Properties and Recovery Efficiency of Immiscible and Miscible Condensate Displacements by SCCO<Subscript>2</Subscript> Injection: Experimental Investigation

This paper presents a quantitative investigation of the interfacial tension dependent relative permeability (IFT-DRP) and displacement efficiency of supercritical CO₂ injection into gas-condensate reservoirs. A high-pressure high-temperature experimental laboratory was established to simulate reservoir conditions and to perform relative permeability measurements on sandstone cores at a constant reservoir temperature of 95°C and displacement velocity of 10 cm/h. This investigation covers immiscible displacements (1100 and 2100 psi), near-miscible displacement (3000 psi) and miscible displacements (4500 and 5900 psi). The coreflooding results demonstrated that displacement pressure is a key factor governing the attainment of optimum sweep efficiency. The ultimate condensate recovery increased by almost threefold when CO₂ was injected at near-miscible conditions (i.e., 23.40% ultimate recovery at 1100 psi compared to 69.70% at 3000 psi). Miscible flooding was found to give the optimum condensate recovery (9% extra ultimate recovery compared to near-miscible injection). Besides improving the ultimate recovery, miscible floods provided better mobility ratios and delayed gas breakthrough (0.62 PV BT at 5900 psi compared to 0.21 PV BT at 1100 psi). In addition to the elimination of IFT forces in miscible displacements, favourable ratios of fluid properties and phase behaviour relationships between the SCCO₂ and condensate were believed to be the driving force for the improved recovery as they provided a stabilising effect on the displacement front and stimulated swelling of the condensate volume. This paper incorporates the theoretical aspects of phase behaviour and fluid properties that largely affect the microscopic displacement efficiency and serves as a practical guideline for operators to aid their project designs and enhance their recovery capabilities.     

On elastocapillarity: A review

Elastocapillary phenomena involving elastic deformation of solid structures coupled with capillary effects of liquid droplets/films can be observed in a diversity of fields,e.g.,biology and microelectromechanical systems(MEMS).Understanding the physical mechanisms underlying these phenomena is of great interest for the design of new materials and devices by utilizing the effects of surface tension at micro and nano scales.In this paper,some recent developments in the investigations on elastocapillary phenomena are briefly reviewed.Especially,we consider the deformation,adhesion,self-assembly,buckling and wrinkling of materials and devices induced by surface tensions or capillary forces.The main attention is paid to the experimental results of these phenomena and the theoretical analysis methods based on continuum mechanics.Additionally,the applications of these studies in the fields of MEMS,micro/nanometrology,and biomimetic design of advanced materials and devices are discussed.     

Blind-hole residual stress determination using optical interferometry

The in-plane method and the out-of-plane method are used to analyze blind-hole residual stress as measured by optical interferometry. The in-plane method, which constructs a relation between the in-plane displacement field and the residual stress released from blind-hole drilling, is applicable when the sensitivity vector of the interferometer used in the measuring system is parallel to the object surface. Three in-plane displacements obtained from one interference pattern are sufficient to determine the residual stress. The out-of-plane method, which establishes a new relation between the out-of-plane displacement field and the released residual stress, is suggested when the sensitivity vector is perpendicular to the object surface. Two relative out-of-plane displacements extracted from one interference pattern are sufficient to determine the residual stress. With the adoption of these two methods, interpolating calculation is not needed to determine the fringe order of each data point, since the selections of the required data points are flexible using these two methods. Two experiments, one for the in-plane method and the other for the out-of-plane method, were carried out to illustrate the applicability and usefulness of these two methods.     

New Experimental Techniques for <Emphasis Type="Italic">In-situ</Emphasis> Measurement of the Damage Characteristics of Piezoelectric Ceramics under High Cycle Fatigue Testing

To better understand the failure characteristics of lead titanate zirconate (PZT) piezoelectric ceramics, in-situ measurements of displacement and crack growth rates were conducted during high cycle fatigue testing, e.g., 5 kHz. A commercial PZT ceramic (used in a buzzer) was employed as the specimen. To examine the failure characteristics, two newly proposed systems were used: (i) a high speed camera system and (ii) a condenser microphone system. The former system consisted of two high speed cameras with an analytical system, which could measure the displacement of the PZT ceramic during the cyclic loading. The maximum displacement value of the ceramic was found to be approximately 20 μm at 0.5 kHz. The three-dimensional shape of the PZT ceramic during cyclic loading could be clearly observed. With the latter system, the displacement intensity arising from the ceramic vibration was detected continuously. It was found that the crack growth rate was not correlated with the fatigue frequency due to the resonance caused by the ceramic oscillation. There is a linear relationship between the crack growth rate and sonar intensity. On the basis of the crack growth behavior, the failure characteristics of the PZT ceramic could be clearly determined.     

基于光学和探针技术的微纳米固体实验力学研究进展

本文综述了近期微纳米固体实验力学在检测技术和设备平台方面的进展,尤其是基于光学和扫描探针平台的实验技术、方法和相关应用.探讨了不同检测技术的优势以及局限性,涉及微纳米实验力学检测中夹持、加载以及微力与微变形的检测与识别.通过相关的研究事例,介绍巧妙、创新的检测技术和系统在微纳米实验中的重要性,以及微尺度检测中所特有的检测系统与检测对象间的耦合关联等特点.     

Experimental observations of tyre deformation characteristics on heavy mining vehicles under static and quasi-static loading

Due to large sidewall and bead thicknesses, multi-piece rims are necessary for use with large off-the-road (OTR) tyres. This paper presents the testing protocol and observed load/deflection and vertical/sidewall deflection characteristics of three Goodyear OTR tyre assemblies, namely, (1) a radial 29.5R29 (2) a bias-ply 29.5-29, and (3) a bias-ply 26.5-26. Localized tyre deformations and rim displacements were measured using optical displacement transducers and post-processing high-speed camera images using digital image analysis software. A validation analysis illustrated a maximum difference of 4.05% of vertical wheel displacements between the aforementioned methods. Quasi-static tests show the maximum values of vertical rim displacement and lateral tyre deflection are in the range of 72.2–78.9 mm and 23.3–27.1 mm, respectively, for a severe excitation condition. Differences ranging from 0.2% to 21.5% for maximum vertical and lateral tyre deflections were found between static load tests and engineering data provided by the tyre manufacturer. Linear relationships were observed for both vertical wheel displacement and lateral tyre deflection versus load for all tests. This study demonstrates a thorough methodology to study deflection characteristics of heavy duty OTR tyres and the collected data could be very useful in the development of numerical models of wheel and tyre assemblies for mining vehicles.     

Manufacturing tolerant topology optimization

In this paper we present an extension of the topology optimization method to include uncertainties during the fabrication of macro, micro and nano structures. More specifically, we consider devices that are manufactured using processes which may result in （uniformly） too thin （eroded） or too thick （dilated） structures compared to the intended topology. Examples are MEMS devices manufactured using etching processes, nano-devices manufactured using e-beam lithography or laser micro-machining and macro structures manufactured using milling processes. In the suggested robust topology optimization approach, under- and over-etching is modelled by image processing-based ＂erode＂ and ＂dilate＂ operators and the optimization problem is formulated as a worst case design problem. Applications of the method to the design of macro structures for minimum compliance and micro compliant mechanisms show that the method provides manufacturing tolerant designs with little decrease in performance. As a positive side effect the robust design formulation also eliminates the longstanding problem of one-node connected hinges in compliant mechanism design using topology optimization.     

CH double-pulsed PLIF measurement in turbulent premixed flame

The flame displacement speeds in turbulent premixed flames have been measured directly by the CH double-pulsed planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF). The CH double-pulsed PLIF systems consist of two independent conventional CH PLIF measurement systems and laser beams from each laser system are led to same optical pass using the difference of polarization. The highly time-resolved measurements are conducted in relatively high Reynolds number turbulent premixed flames on a swirl-stabilized combustor. Since the time interval of the successive CH PLIF can be selected to any optimum value for the purpose intended, both of the large scale dynamics and local displacement of the flame front can be discussed. By selecting an appropriate time interval (100–200 μs), deformations of the flame front are captured clearly. Successive CH fluorescence images reveal the burning/generating process of the unburned mixtures or the handgrip structures in burnt gas, which have been predicted by three-dimensional direct numerical simulations of turbulent premixed flames. To evaluate the local flame displacement speed directly from the successive CH images, a flame front identification scheme and a displacement vector evaluation scheme are developed. Direct measurements of flame displacement speed are conducted by selecting a minute time interval (≈30 μs) for different Reynolds number (Re _λ = 63.1–115.0). Local flame displacement speeds coincide well for different Reynolds number cases. Furthermore, comparisons of the mean flame displacement speed and the mean fluid velocity show that the convection in the turbulent flames will affect the flame displacement speed for high Reynolds number flames.     

基于MEMS技术的微型流量传感器的研究进展

流量测量是工业生产和科研工作的重要的检测参数.近年来,随着对微电子机械系统(MEMS)的深入研究和取得的进展,传统的工业和流体力学研究的流量传感器向高集成度,微型化,高精度,高可靠性方向发展,同时生命科学的发展大大促进了用于微流体,生物学、医学、卫生、食物等学科研究新型微型流量传感器的研究开发, 微型流量传感器已成为MEMS的重要研究方向.本文对基于MEMS技术的流量传感器技术的原理、分类作了简要介绍,归纳和评述了各种基于MEMS技术的流量传感器(热式型,差压型,升力型,流体振动型, 科里奥利型及仿生型微型流量传感器等)的生产工艺和应用特点,并对基于MEMS技术的微型流量传感器的校正方法做了总结归纳.介绍了国内在微型流量传感器方面的研制工作.最后总结归纳出基于MEMS技术的流量传感器发展不同阶段并阐述了各个阶段的发展特点,并对基于MEMS技术的流量传感器新的发展趋势进行了展望.