Sound radiation from inflow turbulence in axial flow fans

The sound radiated when inflow turbulence is present in axial flow fans has been investigated. Theoretically, two noise radiating mechanisms can be identified: (i) interaction of turbulence with the rotor potential field results in a quadrupole-type volume source distribution, producing “flow-interaction” noise; (ii) impingement of turbulence on the blades results in a dipole-type (fluctuating force) surface source distribution, producing “fluctuating lift” noise. A theoretical expression for the flow interaction sound power in the upstream radiation field has been developed, in terms of parameters that can be experimentally determined by near field flow measurements involving spatial cross-correlations of the fluctuating axial velocity, with respect to both radial and circumferential position. Both these measurements and radiated sound pressure measurements have been made for eight- and ten-bladed rotors of relatively low tip Mach number (< 0·3). The sound pressure measurements revealed the occurrence of band-spreading of discrete tones at the blade passing frequency and its harmonics, as would be theoretically predicted for quadrupole-type sources here. The theoretical predictions and the measurements, respectively, of the sound power radiated upstream were compared. The results indicated that, for the fans tested, the “fluctuating lift” noise strongly predominated over the “flow-interaction” noise. The observed sound power levels were consistent with levels estimated from the theory.     

飞机机体表面声压及舱内降噪优化设计

本文以某型客机为研究对象,从飞行试验数据分析和声学建模两方面研究机体表面声压分布及其对舱内壁板近场辐射声压的影响。首先根据试飞数据分析了机体表面声压分布,然后利用统计能量法建立飞机客舱中后段的声学模型,以试飞数据作为声源输入,研究机体表面声压分布对客舱内部壁板附近声压分布的影响,并在此基础上提出优化设计方案,通过模型验证优化方案的有效性。试飞数据表明：机体表面声压在后应急门前方、靠近地板处最大;巡航速度升高,声压级较大区域的面积随之增加;巡航高度和发动机N1N2频率变化对机体表面声压级分布无明显影响。仿真数据表明：仅蒙皮结构无法有效降低客舱噪声;对声学降噪包进行优化能增加壁板隔声量,降低舱内声压。     

Energy based simulation of a Timoshenko beam in non-forced rotation. Influence of the piano hammer shank flexibility on the sound

A nonlinear model for a vibrating Timoshenko beam in non-forced unknown rotation is derived from the virtual work principle applied to a system of beam with mass at the end. The system represents a piano hammer shank coupled to a hammer head. An energy-based numerical scheme is then provided, obtained by non-classical approaches. A major difficulty for time discretization comes from the nonlinear behavior of the kinetic energy of the system. This new numerical scheme is then coupled to a global energy-preserving numerical solution for the whole piano. The obtained numerical simulations show that the pianistic touch clearly influences the spectrum of the piano sound of equally loud isolated notes. These differences do not come from a possible shock excitation on the structure, or from a changing impact point, or a “longitudinal rubbing motion” on the string, since neither of these features is modeled in our study.     

复杂封闭声场面板声学贡献度识别的等效源法

针对由复杂结构振动形成的封闭空间声场,提出了一种基于等效源法的面板声学贡献度分析方法。该方法首先利用基于等效源法的内部声全息技术,重构出振动结构表面的法向振速并实现对整个内部封闭声场的预测。再将振动结构的每个面板在腔体内部场点产生的声压分别用位于空腔表面附近的等效源在该点产生的辐射声压代替,将复杂的封闭非自由声场问题转化为简单的内部自由场问题,结合重建出的结构表面法向振速进而识别出封闭振动结构各面板对腔体内任意位置的声学贡献度。通过对复杂结构内声场的数值仿真和验证实验,分析了等效源的数量及与重建面距离等参数对重建精度的影响,结果表明所提方法不仅能够达到传统数值分析方法的计算精度,而且具有更简单的求解过程。     

Blind separation of sound sources from the principle of least spatial entropy

The aim of the paper is to offer a method for separating incoherent and compact sound sources which may overlap in both the space and frequency domains. This is found of interest in acoustical applications involving the identification and ranking of sound sources stemming from different physical origins. The principle proceeds in two steps, the first one being reminiscent to source reconstruction (e.g. as in near-field acoustical holography) and the second one to blind source separation. Specifically, the source mixture is first expanded into a linear combination of spatial basis functions whose coefficients are set by backpropagating the pressures measured by an array of microphones to the source domain. This leads to a formulation similar, but no identical, to blind source separation. In the second step, these coefficients are blindly separated into uncorrelated latent variables, assigned to incoherent “virtual sources”. These are shown to be defined up to an arbitrary rotation. A unique set of sound sources is finally recovered by searching for that rotation (by conjugate gradient descent in the Stiefel manifold of unitary matrices) which maximizes their spatial compactness, as measured either by their spatial variance or their spatial entropy. This results in the proposal of two separation criteria coined “least spatial variance” and “least spatial entropy”, respectively. The same concept of spatial entropy, which is central to the paper, is also exploited in defining a new criterion, the entropic L-curve, dedicated to determining the number of active sound sources. The idea consists in considering the number of sources that achieves the best compromise between a low spatial entropy (as expected from compact sources) and a low statistical entropy (as expected from a low residual error). The proposed methodology is validated on both laboratory experiments and numerical data, and illustrated on an industrial example concerned with the ranking of sound sources on a Diesel engine. At the same time, its robustness to the estimated number of active sources is demonstrated.     

Equivalent source method for identification of panel acoustic contribution in irregular enclosed sound field

For the interior sound field formed by the complex vibrating structure,an identification approach of panel acoustic contribution based on equivalent source method(ESM)was presented.The normal velocity on the surface of vibrating structure was first reconstructed by using interior nearfield acoustic holography based on ESM and the prediction of whole interior enclosed sound field was realized.Then the sound pressure produced by each panel at the interested field point was respectively replaced by the radiated pressure of the enclosed interior sound field which is formed by the equivalent virtual sources located near the surface of the cavity.Combining with the reconstructed normal surface velocity,the acoustic contribution of each panel to any position in the cavity was obtained by transforming the complex enclosed non-free field into the simple interior free field.Numerical simulations and experiments are conducted,and the influences of the number of the equivalent sources and the distance between them and the reconstructed surface have been investigated.The results show that the proposed method is easier to be implemented with the same accuracy than the traditional analysis method.     

The evaluation of binaural playback systems for virtual sound fields

By means of virtual acoustics technologies the impulse response in a location of a real enclosure can be used to create a virtual room. Also in this virtual space, typically implemented in a dead room, an impulse response can be measured. From both “real” and respective “virtual” impulse response a group of room-acoustical parameters can be calculated. The match of the two groups of indicators mostly depends on the layout of the playback system and on the implemented processing. In this paper a procedure of virtual measurement in a dead room is developed and some typical layouts of playback systems employing two loudspeakers are compared. Based on the consistency of the room-acoustical indicators derived from “real” and “virtual” impulse responses can be investigated. It is shown how the performance depends on the angular separation of loudspeakers and the efficiency of the cross-talk is also tested and discussed. Finally, a set-up which is suitable for psychoacoustics tests is indicated.     

A finite element approach to a coupled structural-acoustic radiation system with application to loudspeaker characteristic calculation

The finite element method is applied to an elastic shell which is vibrating to generate acoustic radiation. A vibrating shell of revolution backed by an enclosure in its rear side is to radiate sound waves into a semi-infinite space in front. As a numerical example, some characteristics of a direct radiator type loudspeaker model are calculated and discussed. The driving point impedance and the far field sound pressure frequency characteristics are shown, together with the effects of the radiation and the enclosure.     

室内声场无网格数值算法性能影响因素分析

基于室内无网格数值算法的理论和实验研究,本文进一步利用控制变量法,结合计算效率对影响计算精度的因素进行了全面分析,包括节点、高斯点的分布方式及其密度,以及构造无网格形函数过程中的基函数类型、权函数类型,并通过对一类基准问题的大量数据实验获得了适用于小尺度封闭空间的最佳支持域半径范围。基于有关结论对一个实际机舱进行了建模分析,将声压级计算值与测量值对比,验证了这些结论的正确性。     

EFFECTS OF END CAP AND ASPECT RATIO ON TRANSMISSION OF SOUND ACROSS A TRUSS-LIKE PERIODIC DOUBLE PANEL

Transmission of sound across 2-D truss-like periodic double panels separated by an air gap and in contact with an acoustic fluid on the external faces is analyzed. Each panel is made of repeated cells. Combining the transfer matrices of the unit cell forms a set of equations for the overall elastic frequency response. The acoustic pressure in the fluids is expressed using a source boundary element method. Adding rigid reflecting end caps confines the air in the gap between panels which influences sound transmission. Measured values of transmission loss differ from the 2-D model by the wide low-frequency dip of the mass-spring-mass or “msm” resonance also termed the “air gap resonance”. In this case, the panels act as rigid masses and the air gap acts as an adiabatic air spring. Results from the idealized 3-D and 2-D models, incorporating rigid cavities and elastic plates, reveal that the “msm” dip is absent in 2-D models radiating into a semi-infinite medium. The dip strengthens as aspect ratio approaches unity. Even when the dip disappears in 2-D, TL rises more steeply for frequencies above the “msm” frequency.     

Controlled sound field with a dual layer loudspeaker array

Controlled sound interference has been extensively investigated using a prototype dual layer loudspeaker array comprised of 16 loudspeakers. Results are presented for measures of array performance such as input signal power, directivity of sound radiation and accuracy of sound reproduction resulting from the application of conventional control methods such as minimization of error in mean squared pressure, maximization of energy difference and minimization of weighted pressure error and energy. Procedures for selecting the tuning parameters have also been introduced. With these conventional concepts aimed at the production of acoustically bright and dark zones, all the control methods used require a trade-off between radiation directivity and reproduction accuracy in the bright zone. An alternative solution is proposed which can achieve better performance based on the measures presented simultaneously by inserting a low priority zone named as the “gray” zone. This involves the weighted minimization of mean-squared errors in both bright and dark zones together with the gray zone in which the minimization error is given less importance. This results in the production of directional bright zone in which the accuracy of sound reproduction is maintained with less required input power. The results of simulations and experiments are shown to be in excellent agreement.     

Empirical method for the prediction of business executive jet cabin noise levels

As a result of flight noise measurements made at various locations in the cabin of the standard lined/no interior Westwind model 1124 business executive jet, it was possible to develop an empirical method for predicting the overall sound pressure level (OASPL) at any required location in the cabin. The cabin overall sound level in decibels (linear) may be found from nomographs related to aircraft altitude, mach number or velocity. The noise spectrum at any location may be found from a reference spectrum shape corrected for local parameters. The accuracy of the prediction method, verified by additional tests, was found to be ± 1 dB.     

Perceived quality features of aircraft sounds: An analysis of the measurement characteristics of a newly created semantic differential

The increasing air traffic in the past has led to the fact that and more and more people were affected by aircraft noise. Since the potential of reducing noise level of current aircraft will be limited in the future after recent developed techniques have been realized in practice.Therefore, additional efforts are necessary to improve the sound quality of aircraft noise and give hints to aircraft manufactures concerning components that have to be acoustically optimized. The present study describes the development of an item list for a semantic differential (SD) that is appropriate for the determination of different perceptive features of aircraft sound quality and focuses on the estimation of the reliability of this new instrument. The selected 10 SD items have relation to the sound components emitted by the different technical devices of airplane engines.The analyses of the measurement characteristics of the different items were based on G-theory. This method presupposes data possessing interval-scale-level characteristics. Therefore, the used rating scales were examined with respect to this attribute. The results verified that the data fulfill this precondition. The results gave evidence that the judgments show large inter-individual differences. The proportion of variance which can be traced back to the factor “aircraft sound” amounted to at most one-fifth of total variance indicating that the differences between the aircraft sounds are rather small. Nevertheless, the findings demonstrate that it is possible to measure not all but several decisive aspects with sufficient reliability and expense.     

How random is a random vector?

Over 80 years ago Samuel Wilks proposed that the “generalized variance” of a random vector is the determinant of its covariance matrix. To date, the notion and use of the generalized variance is confined only to very specific niches in statistics. In this paper we establish that the “Wilks standard deviation” –the square root of the generalized variance–is indeed the standard deviation of a random vector. We further establish that the “uncorrelation index” –a derivative of the Wilks standard deviation–is a measure of the overall correlation between the components of a random vector. Both the Wilks standard deviation and the uncorrelation index are, respectively, special cases of two general notions that we introduce: “randomness measures” and “independence indices” of random vectors. In turn, these general notions give rise to “randomness diagrams”—tangible planar visualizations that answer the question: How random is a random vector? The notion of “independence indices” yields a novel measure of correlation for Lévy laws. In general, the concepts and results presented in this paper are applicable to any field of science and engineering with random-vectors empirical data.     

Surface passivation of III-V semiconductors for future CMOS devices—Past research, present status and key issues for future

Currently, III-V metal-insulator-semiconductor field effect transistors (MISFETs) are considered to be promising device candidates for the so-called “More Moore Approach” to continue scaling CMOS transistors on the silicon platform. Strong interest also exists in III-V nanowire MISFETs as a possible candidate for a “Beyond CMOS”-type device. III-V sensors using insulator-semiconductor interfaces are good candidates for “More Moore”-type of devices on the Si platform. The success of these new approaches for future electronics depends on the availability of a surface passivation technology which can realize pinning-free, high-quality interfaces between insulator and III-V semiconductors.This paper reviews the past history, present status and key issues of the research on the surface passivation technology for III-V semiconductors. First, a brief survey of previous research on surface passivation and MISFETs is made, and Fermi level pinning at insulator-semiconductor interface is discussed. Then, a brief review is made on recent approaches of interface control for high-k III-V MIS structures. Subsequently, as an actual example of interface control, latest results on the authors’ surface passivation approach using a silicon interface control layer (Si ICL) are discussed. Finally, a photoluminescence (PL) method to characterize the interface quality is presented as an efficient contactless and non-destructive method which can be applied at each step of interface formation process without fabrication of MIS capacitors and MISFETs.     

复杂声学环境中人耳附近空间有源降噪研究综述

复杂声学环境中人耳附近空间降噪是有源噪声控制研究的重要课题,目前采用的主要方法为有源降噪头靠(AHR)和虚拟声屏障(VSB).本文简述AHR与VSB的发展历史和研究现状,介绍其物理原理和设计方法,评述其在实际应用中的优缺点,讨论了目前存在的问题与未来相关的研究方向.已有理论、数值仿真和实验研究验证了相关技术在人耳附近空间产生静区的可行性. AHR系统需要较少控制源,系统相对简单易实现,但静区范围较小,结合虚拟传声器技术和人头跟踪技术后可实现随人头移动的静区,降噪频率可达中高频; VSB产生的静区范围较大,但控制源个数较多,系统复杂和成本高,可通过代价函数和控制源优化,以及主被动混合控制技术来提高有效降噪频率范围和减少控制源个数.     

Prediction of the acoustic pressure above periodically uneven facings in industrial workplaces

The aim of this work is to predict sound pressure in front of wall facings based on periodic sound scattering surface profiles. The method involves investigating plane wave reflections randomly incident upon an uneven surface. The waveguide approach is well suited to the geometries usually encountered in industrial workplaces. This method simplifies the profile geometry by using elementary rectangular volumes. The acoustic field in the profile interstices can then be expressed as the superposition of waveguide modes. In past work, walls considered are of infinite dimensions and are subjected to a periodic surface profile in only one direction. We therefore generalise this approach by extending its applicability to “double-periodic” wall facings. Free-field measurements have been taken and the observed agreement between numerical and experimental results supports the validity of the waveguide method.     

A study on the characteristic behavior of mass inclusions added to a poro-elastic layer

Heterogeneous (HG) blankets consist of a layer of poro-elastic media with small embedded masses that replicate the behavior of a distributed mass-spring-damper system. The concept of an HG blanket used to control the sound transmission through an aircraft double-panel system has already been developed and cited in the present literature. However, deficiencies in methodical property control exist; therefore, the prime objective of this research is to provide a simple method to predict and control material properties of the heterogeneous blankets through alteration of mass and stiffness parameters. Mass inclusion size, shape, and placement were varied. If optimized heterogeneous (HG) blankets targeted to specific applications are to be successfully developed, control of these parameters is necessary.This research offers a detailed analysis of the behavior of the mass inclusions, highlighting controlled stiffness variation of the mass-spring-damper systems inside the HG blanket. Characteristic parameters of the HG blanket like the “footprint,” “effective area,” and the “mass interaction distance” are defined and confirmed through mathematical calculations and experimental results. A novel, empirical approach to predict the natural frequency of different mass shapes embedded in porous media was derived and experimentally verified for many different types of porous media, including melamine foam, polyurethane, and polyamide. A maximum error of 8% existed for all the predictions made in this document.     

基于散射矩阵法的飞机壁板声学优化设计

采用散射矩阵法分析夹层板结构声学特性,并对典型的夹层板结构即飞机壁板进行声学优化,预计飞机壁板隔声特性,获得蒙皮、隔声隔热层、内饰板及它们的组合结构的声学性能。针对尾吊飞机客舱后部噪声过大问题,通过增加铺设隔热隔声层以及部分区域优化安装阻尼层等一系列被动降噪处理方法,对主要传递路径的飞机壁板结构进行优化,降低客舱后部噪声水平,并进行试验验证。试验结果表明:散射矩阵法可快速准确获得夹层结构的隔声性能,并与混响室法测试结果吻合较好;在厚度不变的前提下,改变隔热隔声层的铺设方式和材料密度对壁板隔声性能影响较小,但在蒙皮内侧粘贴阻尼层能在一定频段范围提高壁板隔声性能;将优化的壁板构型应用到飞机后舱段侧壁板,舱内噪声水平可降低约3 dB。