Recoordination of a metal ion in the cavity of a crown compound: a theoretical study. 1. Conformers of arylazacrown ethers and their complexes with Ca2+ cation

Photoinduced recoordination of Ca²⁺ complexes of the photochromic azacrown ethers is studied by the density functional method. The study included model arylazacrown ethers containing various acceptor groups in the aromatic ring in the para position to the azacrown ether moiety and a real azacrown-containing styryl dye. It is found that both free azacrown ethers and their complexes can adopt two types of conformations: (1) axial conformations, in which the aromatic ring axis passing through the crown ether nitrogen N_cr and the opposite atom of the aromatic ring is perpendicular to the root-mean-square (RMS) plane of the crown ether (least-squares fitted plane for all the crown ether atoms), and (2) equatorial conformations, in which the aromatic ring axis only slightly deflects from the RMS plane of the crown ether. In the equatorial conformers, the metal cation is coordinated only to the O atoms of the azacrown ether cycle, the metal—nitrogen bond is broken, and N_cr is conjugated with the aromatic ring. In the axial conformers, the metal cation is additionally coordinated to N_cr. It is found that the presence of an acceptor group bearing a formal positive charge decreases the relative energy of the equatorial conformer and favors metal—nitrogen bond dissociation, which results in the recoordination of the metal cation. However, a long distance between the charged group and N_cr has the reverse effect. The photoinduced recoordination observed in the alkaline-earth metal complexes of the photochromic azacrown ethers is explained by the transitions between the axial and equatorial conformers facilitated by the charge transfer in the excited state of the complex.     

Recoordination of a metal ion in the cavity of a crown compound: a theoretical study 2.* Effect of the metal ion— solvent interaction on the conformations of calcium complexes of arylazacrown ethers

The effect of the local interaction of a metal ion with the solvent on the conformations of calcium complexes of arylazacrown ethers and an azacrown-containing dye was studied using the density functional method with the PBE and B3LYP functionals. The structures were studied and the interaction energies were determined for the calcium complexes with n = 1–12 water or acetonitrile molecules. It was found that the inner coordination sphere of the free Ca²⁺ cation contains six H₂O or seven MeCN molecules. The cation—acetonitrile interaction energy is higher than the cation—water interaction energy up to the moment the second solvation shell of the cation is almost complete (n = 11). The inner coordination sphere of Ca²⁺ in the macrocycle cavity contains at most three water molecules, while the fourth one is displaced to the second coordination sphere. Taking into account the local interaction with the solvent (H₂O or MeCN), the conformers of the calcium complexes of arylazacrown ethers and the azacrown-containing dye were studied. It was shown that the presence of two to four water molecules in the coordination sphere of the cation reduces the relative energies of the conformers with broken metal—nitrogen bond, thus favoring ground-state metal recoordination. For Part 1, see Ref. 1. Dedicated to Academician A.L. Buchachenko on the occasion of his 70th birthday. Published in Russian in Izvestiya Akademii Nauk. Seriya Khimicheskaya, No. 9, pp. 1981–1992, September, 2005.     

Photo Decoloration of Methylene Blue with Ribose under Optimum Conditions by Visible Radiation

Photo decoloration of the methylene blue (MB) with reducing sugar, ribose (RH), was investigated on an especially designed optical processor using monochromatic radiation of 661 nm through a red filter. The dye molecule gets excited into triplet transient species (MBT) during flushing with lifetime of 10.1 ms into acetate buffered aqueous alcoholic medium, which later on reduces to protonated leuco dye (MBH). Photolysis of the aqueous alcholic medium generated highly reactive oxygen radical (O－•) with the production of 2e－, which led to probable oxidation of the ribose into respective acid while hydrogen abstraction and 2e－ reduced the dye (MB) into MBH by following reaction     

IRMPD Spectroscopy of a Protonated,Phosphorylated Dipeptide

The protonated, phosphorylated dipeptide [GpY+H]⁺ is characterized by mid‐infrared multiple‐photon dissociation (IRMPD) spectroscopy and quantum‐chemical calculations. The ions are generated in an external electrospray source and analyzed in a Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometer, and their fragmentation is induced by resonant absorption of multiple photons emitted by a tunable free‐electron laser. The IRMPD spectra are recorded in the 900–1730 cm^?1 range and compared to the absorption spectra computed for the lowest energy structures. A detailed calibration of computational levels, including B3LYP‐D and coupled cluster, is carried out to obtain reliable relative energies of the low‐energy conformers. It turns out that a single structure can be invoked to assign the IRMPD spectrum. Protonation at the N terminus leads to the formation of a strong ionic hydrogen bond with the phosphate P?O group in all low‐energy structures. This leads to a P?O stretching frequency for [GpY+H]⁺ that is closer to that of [pS+H]⁺ than to that of [pY+H]⁺ and thus demonstrates the sensitivity of this mode to the phosphate environment. The COP phosphate ester stretching mode is confirmed to be an intrinsic diagnostic for identification of which type of amino acid is phosphorylated.     

Cofluorescence of dyes in nanoparticles from metal ion complexes with diketones

Nanoparticles (NPs) from diketonates of Al³⁺, Sc³⁺, In³⁺ and Ln³⁺ doped with dye molecules are synthesized. The appearance of sensitized fluorescence (cofluorescence) of dye molecules due to energy transfer from the ensemble of complexes forming NPs is revealed in aqueous solutions of these NPs. It is shown that the dye cofluorescence in NPs from Eu complexes occurs as a result of two distinct processes of energy transfer (ET) to dye molecules: from singlet levels of ligands and from Eu³⁺ ions. It is found that the efficiency of ET from Eu³⁺ ions to dyes in NPs from Eu(DBM)₃phen is one order of magnitude higher than the efficiency of ET from S₁-levels of ligands to dyes in NPs from Al complexes with the same ligands. It is shown that the excitation of dye molecules through ligands of NPs results in the enhancement of the intensity of their fluorescence by a factor of 1.5–2 orders of magnitude compared to the excitation of their own first band of absorption.     

A Computational and Experimental Study of Thieno[3,4‐b]thiophene as a Proaromatic π‐Bridge in Dye‐Sensitized Solar Cells

Four D ‐π‐A dyes (D=donor, A=accpetor) based on a 3,4‐thienothiophene π‐bridge were synthesized for use in dye‐sensitized solar cells (DSCs). The proaromatic building block 3,4‐thienothiophene is incorporated to stabilize dye excited‐state oxidation potentials. This lowering of the excited‐state energy levels allows for deeper absorption into the NIR region with relatively low molecular weight dyes. The influence of proaromatic functionality is probed through a computational analysis of optimized bond lengths and nucleus independent chemical shifts (NICS) for both the ground‐ and excited‐ states. To avoid a necessary lowering of the TiO₂ semiconductor conduction band (CB) to promote efficient dye–TiO₂ electron injection, strong donor functionalities based on triaryl‐ and diarylamines are employed in the dye designs to raise both the ground‐ and excited‐state oxidation potentials of the dyes. Solubility, aggregation, and TiO₂ surface protection are addressed by examining an ethylhexyl alkyl chain in comparison to a simple ethyl chain on the 3,4‐thienothiophene bridge. Power conversion efficiencies of up to 7.8 % are observed.     

Photonics of azacrown-containing styryl dye and its complexes with metal ions: 1. Triplet states

Photophysical processes in a styryl dye; an azacrown-containing analog; and its complexes with barium, lead, calcium, sodium, and silver cations have been studied by laser kinetic and luminescent spectroscopy. The participation of the triplet state in the degradation of photoexcitation energy has been established. Phosphorescence and delayed fluorescence of dyes and its complexes have been revealed found. It has been concluded that the molecules can exist in the excited TICT state.     

EXCITED STATES OF SIX-MEMBERED N-HETEROCYCLES. FLUORESCENCE, PHOSPHORESCENCE AND ACID—BASE EQUILIBRIA OF ELECTRONICALLY EXCITED PHENAZINE

Abstract— An account of a systematic study of the acid-base equilibria of phenazine in the two lowest excited (π,π) states is presented. Pure electronic levels of the free base and of both its protonated forms have been located by spectroscopic methods. Fluorescence, phosphorescence and corresponding absorption spectra have been measured. The O-O energies of the free base, of the singly-protonated species and of the doubly protonated form in the lowest triplet state (³L_α(π, π)) are: 15, 475 cm^-1, 14, 175 cm^-1 and about 9300cm^-1, respectively. This last value has been estimated from the experimentally determined S-T splitting in the other two forms. Corresponding energies of the lowest singlet state (^IL_α(π,π)) are: 23,500 cm^-1, 21,250cm^-1 and 17,300 cm^-1. The fluorescence of the free base has been found in polar as well as in non-polar solvents and has been checked by the fluorescence excitation spectrum. Fluorescence quantum yields for the free base have been measured: 8.6 times 10^-4 and 3.0 × 10^-5 in ethanol and hexane solutions, respectively. Emission in ethanol has been ascribed to (π,π), that in hexane —to (π, π). fluorescence. The changes of pK_α's under excitation, calculated from the Forster's cycle, are equal: δpK_a¹=+2.8±0.3; δpK_a¹¹?+10±1.5 in the lowest (π, π) triplet state and δpK_a¹=+4.8±0.5; δpK_a¹¹=+8.4 ± 0.5 in the lowest (π,π) singlet state. The δpK_a¹¹ in the triplet state is at least as high as that in the ¹L_a(π, π) state. P P P calculations of the electronic levels and of the molecular diagrams have been performed. The energies obtained exceed experimental values by not more than 0.5 eV. An increase of the net charge on nitrogen δp under excitation has been found to be +50, +70 and +19 per cent in the ¹L_a, ¹L_b and ³L_a states, respectively. A good correlation has been found between δpK_a¹ and δp in both excited states, which have been studied experimentally.     

Electronic structures and absorption properties of three kinds of ruthenium dye sensitizers containing bipyridine-pyrazolate for solar cells

The geometries, electronic structures and the electronic absorption spectra of three kinds of ruthenium complexes, which contain tridentate bipyridine-pyrazolate ancillary ligands, were studied using density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT. The calculated results indicate that: (1) the strong conjugated effects are formed across the pyrazoalte-bipyridine groups; (2) the interfacial electron transfer between electrode and the dye sensitizers is an electron injection processes from the excited dyes to the conduction band of TiO2; (3) the absorption bands in visible region have a mixed character of metal-to-ligand charge transfer and ligand-to-ligand charge transfer, but the main character of absorption bands near UV region ascribe to π→π* transitions; (4) introducing pyrazolate and -NCS groups are favorable for intra-molecular charge transfer, and they are main chromophores that contribute to the sensitization of photon-to-current conversion processes, but introducing -Cl and the terminal group -CF3 are unfavorable to improve the dye performance in dye sensitized solar cells.     

Photoprocesses in <Emphasis Type="Italic">N</Emphasis>-ammonioalkyl derivatives of azacrown-containing styryl dyes and their complexes with metal perchlorates

Photophysical processes and photochemical reactions in the N-ammonioalkyl derivatives of the azacrown-containing styryl dyes and their complexes with lead and barium perchlorates in MeCN and CH₂Cl₂ were studied by ¹Н NMR spectroscopy, absorption spectroscopy, luminescence spectroscopy, laser kinetic spectroscopy, and quantum chemistry. Molecules of the styryl dyes and their complexes are able to undergo normal (fast) and delayed fluorescence and trans–cis-photoisomerization. The molecules in the triplet state participate in degradation processes of the electron excitation energy.     

Spectroscopic and electrochemical properties of cyclopalladated complexes of 2,3-diphenylquinoxaline and 2,2′,3,3′-tetraphenyl-6,6′-biquinoline

Comparative study of cyclopalladated ethylenediamine complexes of 2,3-diphenylquinoxaline (Hdphqx) [Pd(dphqx)En]ClO₄ and 2,2′,3,3′-tetraphenylbiquinoline (H₂tphbq) [(PdEn)₂(μ-tphbq)](ClO₄)₂, and the free heterocyclic ligands was performed by means of ¹H NMR spectroscopy, electronic absorption and emission spectroscopy, and cyclic voltammetry. It was shown that cyclopalladation gives rise to a long-wave absorption band in the visible spectrum, a batochromic shift of the vibrationally structured phosphorescence band, and an anodic shift of the ligand-centered reduction potential of the complexes com-pared to free ligands.     

Neue Dimethinmerocyanin-Farbstoffe mit der (Sulfobutyl)benzothiazol-Gruppe als Donor-Teilchromophor und deren Aggregationsverhalten in wässriger Lösung

Novel Dimethinemerocyanine Dyes with the (Sulfobutyl)benzothiazole Group as Donor Part of the Chromophor and their Aggregation Tendency in Aqueous Solution A series of novel dimethinemerocyanine dyes with the (sulfobutyl)benzothiazole group as the donor part of the chromophor is synthesized in good yield and their aggregation tendency in H₂O without addition of salt investigated. The merocyanine dye 2b only gives J-aggregation in H₂O. The dyes 1a–f and 2a exhibit an intense, red-shifted absorption band due to J-aggregation in H₂O in the presence of Me₄NCl. In contrast, the dyes 1g and 2c–f show a slightly red-shifted absorption band. The degree of aggregation in H₂O is investigated by ultracentrifugation of the representative 2e . Indeed, the slightly red-shifted absorption band in H₂O is due to aggregation of ‘oligomers’ of the dye. Contrary to the aggregation of ‘polymers’ of dyes (J-aggregation), we suggest the term ‘K’ band for the slightly red-shifted absorption band. The hemicyanine dye 5 gives the same absorption band in MeOH and in MeOH/H₂O 1:3. The dye 11 shows an absorption band in H₂O that is probably blue-shifted because of negative solvatochromism. The merocyanine dye 13 gives H-aggregation in H₂O.     

Photochromic and thermochromic spirans

By means of the SCF MO LCAO method in the π-electronic (PPP) and all-valence (CNDO) approximations the electronic structures and spectral characteristics of the valence isomers of 2H-chromenes, thiochromenes, and 1,2-dihydroquinolines have been calculated. On the basis of a consideration of the electronic configuration of various excited states, an explanation has been given of the mechanism of the photochromism of the chromenes and their analogs. A hypothesis has been put forward concerning the possibility of thermochromism in 1,2-dihydronaphthalene. It has been shown that the diffuseness of the long-wave absorption band of the open forms of the compounds investigated is not connected with the existence of several stereoisomers. The influence of the heteroatom and of benzo-fusion on the long-wave absorption has been analyzed. The nature of the electronic transition responsible for the long-wave absorption of the photo-colored forms has been explained.     

Promising sensitizers for dye sensitized solar cells: A comparison of Ru(II) with other earth's scarce and abundant metal polypyridine complexes

There has recently been a growing interest in dye sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) based on ruthenium metal, but due to the scarcity and high price of ruthenium, design of better and cheaper light adsorbent dyes based on more abundant metal ions is one of the key issues for future development of the DSSCs. Using density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT we have studied the properties of new and abundant metal ion-based polypyridyl dyes for p-type DSSCs and compared with ruthenium and other scarce metal ions. Molecular geometries, electronic structures, and optical absorption spectra have been calculated using an implicit solvent corresponding to acetonitrile. The calculated fair light harvesting efficiency, high hole injection efficiency and Gibbs free energy for the hole injection and longer excited state lifetime (important for reflecting the efficiency of solar cells) for the new abundant metal ions (V³⁺ and Cr²⁺) based dyes could provide promising sensitizers for efficient next generation DSSC's for p-SC.     

Solvatochromism of Heteroaromatic Compounds: VII. Bifurcate Hydrogen Bond in Solvatochromic Complexes of 2-(1,2,2-Tritricyanovinyl)pyrrole

IR and UV spectrosocopy and quantum chemistry were used to reveal a bifurcate (three-center) hydrogen bond in the complexes of 2-(1,2,2-tricyanovinyl)pyrrole with hydrogen-bond acceptors. In the gas phase and aprotic inert solvents this compound exists predominantly as the sp conformer stabilized by intra- molecular hydrogen bond involving an orthogonal system of the nitrile group and the NH hydrogen. The formation of the three-center hydrogen bond with an aprotic protophilic solvent shifts the conformational equilibrium to the ap conformer. As the strength of the intermolecular hydrogen bond increases in the series nitromethane < acetonitrile < dioxane, the fraction of the ap conformer increases and becomes prevailing already in the moderately protophilic THF. Solvatochromism of the long-wave absorption band in the elec- tronic spectra of the sp and ap conformers was studied in detail.     

Cation–ether complexes in the gas phase: thermodynamic insight into molecular recognition

Trends in the bond dissociation energies for the binding of the alkali metal cations, Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Rb⁺, and Cs⁺, to a series of ethers, 1–4 dimethyl ethers, 1 and 2 dimethoxy ethanes, and the crown ethers, 12c4, 15c5, and 18c6, are discussed. The bond energies have been determined in previous studies by analysis of the thresholds for collision-induced dissociation of the cation–ether complexes by xenon as measured in a guided ion beam tandem mass spectrometer. Details of the analysis of the data are reviewed and the accuracy of the results ascertained by comparison with theoretical results taken from the literature. Combined, the experimental and theoretical results provide an extensive thermochemical database for evaluation of the metal-crown complexes, a simple example of molecular recognition. These results indicate the importance of optimizing the metal–oxygen bond distances and the orientation of the local dipole on the oxygen towards the metal. Further, it is shown that excited state conformers of these complexes are probably observed in several systems as a result of interesting metal-dependent dynamics in the formation of the complexes.     

Infrared Multiple Photon Dissociation Action Spectroscopy and Theoretical Studies of Triethyl Phosphate Complexes: Effects of Protonation and Sodium Cationization on Structure

The gas-phase structures of protonated and sodium cationized complexes of triethyl phosphate, [TEP + H]⁺ and [TEP + Na]⁺, are examined via infrared multiple photon dissociation (IRMPD) action spectroscopy using tunable IR radiation generated by a free electron laser, a Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometer with an electrospray ionization source, and theoretical electronic structure calculations. Measured IRMPD action spectra are compared to linear IR spectra calculated at the B3LYP/6-31 G(d,p) level of theory to identify the structures accessed in the experimental studies. For comparison, theoretical studies of neutral TEP are also performed. Sodium cationization and protonation produce changes in the central phosphate geometry, including an increase in the alkoxy ∠OPO bond angle and shortening of the alkoxy P–O bond. Changes associated with protonation are more pronounced than those produced by sodium cationization.     

Novel Metal Complexes Unit of Phenanthroline Derivative for Being Used as Auxiliary Electron Acceptor in Dye Sensitizer Molecules

Donor-acceptor-π bridge-acceptor (D−A−π−A) motif dyes are promising dye sensitizers in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). In this study, to strengthen with-drawing electron force of the auxiliary electron acceptors(A) in D−A−π−A motif dye sensitizers, the metal complexes unit is be used as auxiliary electron acceptor(A) instead of organic electron-withdrawing monomer. The four polymeric metal complexes were designed, synthesized, and characterized, which used metal complexes of phenanthroline derivatives as auxiliary acceptors (A), benzodithiophene-dithiophene derivatives (BDTT) as donors (D), and 8-hydroxyquinoline derivatives as π-bridges and acceptors of the dye sensitizers, and have been used for dye sensitizers. Under AM 1.5 G (100 mW cm⁻²), the photovoltaic test results indicated that the short-circuit photocurrent density (J_sc) of the DSSCs based four polymeric metal complexes are 11.26, 13.68, 14.42 and 15.57 mA cm⁻² and power conversion efficiency (PCE) are 5.96 %, 7.83 %, 8.07 %, 9.28 % respectively. Both J_sc and PCE value of the four polymeric metal complexes increased in order. This may be due to the fact that larger radius of metal ion under the same change number can enhance the coordination bond and cause stronger electron-withdrawing ability of auxiliary acceptor and stronger charge-transfer ability between the donor and the acceptor, which results in higher J_sc and higher PCE of the polymeric complex dye sensitizer.     

Spectroscopical and Electrochemical Behavior of New Mixed-Ligand Cyclometalated Rh(III) Complexes

The absorption spectra, luminescence spectra, excited-state lifetimes, and electrochemical behavior of the cyclometalated [Rh(ppz)₂bpy]+^, [Rh(3-Cl-ppz)₂(bpy)]⁺, [Rh(4-NO2-ppz)₂(bpy)]⁺, [Rh(ppz)₂(biq)]⁺ and [Rh(4-NO2-ppz)₂(biq)]⁺ complexes (ppz^?, 3-Cl-ppz^?, and 4-NO₂-ppz^? are the ortho-C-deprotonated forms of 1-phenylpyrazole, l-(3-chlorophenyl)pyrazole and l-(4-nitrophenyl)pyrazole, respectively) have been investigated. The results obtained have been compared with those concerning the free protonated ligands and some previously studied mixed-ligand cyclometalated Rh(III) complexes. Luminescence originates from the lowest ligand-centered (LC) excited state, which involves the diimine ligands in all cases except for [Rh(4-NO2-ppz)₂(bpy)]⁺, where it involves the ortho-metalating ligand. s. In the absorption spectra, LC and metal-to-ligand charge-transfer (MLCT) bands, involving the diimine and/or the ortho-metalating ligands, have been assigned, and correlations between spectroscopic and electrochemical data are discussed.     

Assessment of Luminescent Downshifting Layers for the Improvement of Light‐Harvesting Efficiency in Dye‐Sensitized Solar Cells

Luminescence downshifting (LDS) of light can be a practical photon management technique to compensate the narrow absorption band of high‐extinction‐coefficient dyes in dye‐sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). Herein, an optical analysis on the loss mechanisms in a reflective LDS (R‐LDS)/DSSC configuration is reported. For squaraine dye (550–700 nm absorption band) and CaAlSiN₃:Eu²⁺ LDS material (550–700 nm emission band), the major loss channels are found to be non‐unity luminescence quantum efficiency (QE) and electrolyte absorption. By using an ideal LDS layer (QE=100 %), a less absorbing electrolyte (Co‐based), and antireflection coatings, approximately 20 % better light harvesting is obtained. If the absorption/emission band of dye/LDS is shifted to 800 nm, a maximal short‐circuit current density (J_sc) of 22.1 mA cm^?2 can be achieved. By putting the LDS layer in front of the DSSC (transmissive mode), more significant loss channels are observed, and hence a lower overall efficiency than the R‐LDS configuration.