Effect of lateral heterogeneity in mixed surfactant-stabilized interfaces on the oxidation of unsaturated lipids in oil-in-water emulsions

The development of lipid oxidation in oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions is widely influenced by the properties of the interfacial layer, which separates the oil and water phases. In this work, the effect of the structure of the interface on the oxidative stability of surfactant stabilized O/W emulsions was investigated. Emulsions were prepared with either single Tween 20 or Tween 20/co-surfactant mixtures in limiting amounts. The co-surfactants, Span 20 and monolauroyl glycerol have the same hydrophobic tail as Tween 20 but differ by the size and composition of their polar headgroup. Metal-initiated lipid oxidation, monitored through the measurement of oxygen uptake, formation of conjugated dienes and volatile compounds, developed more rapidly in the emulsions stabilized by the surfactant mixture than in the single Tween 20-stabilized emulsion. The reconstitution of Tween 20/co-surfactant films at the air-water interface and their surface-pressure isotherms highlighted that, contrary to single Tween 20 molecules, Tween 20/co-surfactant mixtures exhibited an heterogeneous distribution within the interfacial layer, offering probably easier access of water-soluble pro-oxidants to the oil phase. These observations provide direct information about the link between the homogeneity of the interface layer and the oxidative stability of emulsions.     

Effect of Emulsifier Type on the Characterization of O/W Emulsions Using a Spectroscopy Technique

The droplet size distribution (DSD) of emulsions is the result of two competitive effects that take place during emulsification process, i.e., drop breakup and drop coalescence, and it is influenced by the formulation and composition variables, i.e., nature and amount of emulsifier, mixing characteristics, and emulsion preparation, all of which affect the emulsion stability. The aim of this study is to characterize oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions (droplet size and stability) in terms of surfactant concentration and surfactant composition (sodium dodecyl benzene sulphonate (SDBS)/Tween 80 mixture). Ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) transmission spectroscopy has been applied to obtain droplet size and stability of the emulsions and the verification of emulsion stability with the relative cleared volume technique (time required for a certain amount of emulsion to separate as a cleared phase). It is demonstrated that the DSD of the emulsions is a function of the oil concentration and the surfactant composition with higher stability for emulsions prepared with higher SDBS ratio and lower relative cleared volume with the time. Results also show that smaller oil droplets are generated with increasing Tween 80 ratio and emulsifier concentration.     

Effect of molecular weight and degree of deacetylation of chitosan on the formation of oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by surfactant-chitosan membranes

The objective of this study was to establish the influence of polyelectrolyte characteristics (molecular weight and charge density) on the properties of oil-in-water emulsions containing oil droplets surrounded by surfactant-polyelectrolyte layers. A surfactant-stabilized emulsion containing small droplets (d32 approximately 0.3 microm) was prepared by homogenizing 20 wt% corn oil with 80 wt% emulsifier solution (20 mM SDS or 2.5 wt% Tween 20, 100 mM acetate buffer, pH 3) using a high-pressure valve homogenizer. This primary emulsion was then diluted with various chitosan solutions to produce secondary emulsions with a range of chitosan concentrations (3 wt% corn oil, 0-1 wt% chitosan). The influence of the molecular characteristics of chitosan on the properties of these emulsions was examined by using chitosan ingredients with different molecular weights (MW approximately 15, 145, and 200 kDa) and degree of deacetylation (DDA approximately 40, 77, and 92%). The electrical charge and particle size of the secondary emulsions were then measured. Extensive droplet aggregation occurred when the chitosan concentration was below the amount required to saturate the droplet surfaces, but stable emulsions could be formed at higher chitosan concentrations. The zeta-potential and mean diameter (d32) of the particles in the secondary emulsions was not strongly influenced by chitosan MW, however the chitosan with the lowest DDA (40%) produced droplets with smaller mean diameters and zeta-potentials than the other two DDA samples examined. Interestingly, we found that stable multilayer emulsions could be formed by mixing medium or high MW chitosan with an emulsion stabilized by a non-ionic surfactant (Tween 20) due to the fact the initial droplets had some negative charge. The information obtained from this study is useful for preparing emulsions stabilized by multilayer interfacial layers.     

FLOW PROPERTIES OF WEATHERED CRUDE OILS AND THEIR EMULSIONS

The present paper proposes the emulsification of weathered crude oils in water as a competitive and cost effective method for reducing their viscosities. Weathered crude oil samples were collected from major Kuwaiti oil lakes. Emulsion preparation involved using, either a nonionic surfactant or alkali, as well as both alkali and fatty acid. The obtained emulsions were characterized by measuring the droplet size distribution of the dispersed phase using optical microscopy. Emulsion stability was also examined in terms of the system breakdown. The rheological properties were measured using a concentric cylinder rotary rheometer. The emulsion rheological behavior has been studied as a function of composition, temperature, and shear rate. A constitutive model was developed to characterize the pseudoplastic behavior of the crude oil and the emulsion systems. The model fitted well the experimental results with a correlation coefficient higher than 95%. Associated with the pseudoplastic behavior, viscoelastic behavior has been observed with emulsions and some oils at high shear rates.

The results of this investigation indicated that the examined weathered crude oils can be transported through pipelines as emulsions of up to 80 vol.% oil concentrations. The proposed method of treatment with NaOH and oleic acid offers several advantages over the surfactant treatment. It exhibited comparable rheological behavior at lower cost and less mixing energy. It also provided higher emulsion stability, which favors oil transportation for longer distances.     

Factors in the Single-Step Bulk Process Preparation of a Triple Janus Emulsion

Some factors in the preparation of triple Janus emulsions in a single-step bulk process were investigated using optical microscopy. The emulsions consisted of water, O.097 weight fraction, a commercial surfactant, Tween 80, 0.03 weight fraction, a vegetable oil (VO), 0.18 weight fraction, and a silicone oil (SO), 0.72 weight fraction. A surprising connection was found between the state of the compounds prior to mixing and the final morphology as well as stability of the emulsion. Separately adding the compounds or with the surfactant dissolved in the vegetable oil, prior to mixing, did not result in a Janus emulsion. Instead, simpler emulsions with limited stability were attained even with prolonged mixing. Storing the compounds together without mixing for two days followed by mixing resulted in a Janus emulsion in which the (VO + SO)/W/VO drops were more sparsely populated with Janus drops, and emulsion stability was limited. Finally, preparing the emulsion from the aqueous surfactant solution and the two oils gave a (VO + SO)/W/VO/SO emulsion with the W drops heavily populated by Janus drops and with improved stability.      

Effect of surfactants on the porous structure of poly(<Emphasis Type="Italic">N</Emphasis>-isopropylacrylamide) hydrogels prepared by an emulsion templating method

Stimuli-sensitive porous hydrogels prepared with an emulsion templating method developed by the authors are potentially applicable in the medical and pharmaceutical fields; thermosensitive N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPA) hydrogels having randomly distributed sphere-like cavities have been prepared by the polymerization in an aqueous phase in an oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion, followed by the washing of oil (oleyl alcohol) microdroplets. The surfactant plays a dominant role in the preparation of porous hydrogels and the pore size. This study concerns with the surfactant effects on the stability of pre-gel O/W emulsions. The porous NIPA hydrogels were successfully prepared using the surfactants forming the stable emulsion and their internal structures and swelling properties were characterized. The O/W emulsions and the porous hydrogels prepared using various amounts of oil and surfactant were characterized. The information obtained serves for preparation of porous hydrogels having suitable porous structure for their applications.     

Influence of droplet characteristics on the formation of oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by surfactant-chitosan layers

The objective of this study was to establish the optimum conditions for preparing stable oil-in-water emulsions containing droplets surrounded by surfactant-chitosan layers. A primary emulsion containing small droplets (d32 approximately = 0.3 microm) was prepared by homogenizing 20 wt% corn oil with 80 wt% emulsifier solution (20 mM SDS, 100 mM acetate buffer, pH 3) using a high-pressure valve homogenizer. The primary emulsion was diluted with chitosan solutions to produce secondary emulsions with a range of oil and chitosan concentrations (0.5-10 wt% corn oil, 0-1 wt% chitosan, pH 3). The secondary emulsions were sonicated to help disrupt any droplet aggregates formed during the mixing process. The electrical charge, particle size, and amount of free chitosan in the emulsions were then measured. The droplet charge changed from negative to positive as the amount of chitosan in the emulsions was increased, reaching a relatively constant value (approximately +50 mV) above a critical chitosan concentration (C(Sat)), which indicated that saturation of the droplet surfaces with chitosan occurred. Extremely large droplet aggregates were formed at chitosan concentrations below C(Sat), but stable emulsions could be formed above C(Sat) provided the droplet concentration was not high enough for depletion flocculation to occur. Interestingly, we found that stable multilayer emulsions could also be formed by mixing chitosan with an emulsion stabilized by a nonionic surfactant (Tween 20) due to the fact the initial droplets had some negative charge. The information obtained from this study is useful for preparing emulsions stabilized by multilayer interfacial layers.     

Factors affecting the loading efficiency of water-soluble drugs in PLGA microspheres

Poly(lactide-co-glycolide), PLGA, microspheres containing blue dextran as a hydrophilic model drug were prepared by a solvent evaporation method from w/o/w emulsions using a micro homogenizer. Effects of surfactant concentration in oil phase, stirring time period and stirring rate in the preparation procedure of primary emulsion (w/o) upon drug-loading efficiency were evaluated. Stirring rate during preparation of primary emulsion and surfactant concentration in oil phase affected drug-loading efficiency and the particle size of primary emulsion. Microspheres having the higher drug-loading efficiency were obtained when size differences between the primary emulsions and the secondary ones were large. That is, when the diameter of the primary emulsion is much smaller than that of the secondary emulsion, PLGA microspheres with high-loading efficiency of blue dextran were obtained.     

Stability of Emulsions Containing Both Sodium Caseinate and Tween 20

The creaming and rheology of oil-in-water emulsions (30 vol% n-tetradecane, pH 6.8) stabilized by a mixture of commercial sodium caseinate and the non-ionic emulsifier polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate (Tween 20) has been investigated at 21 degrees C. The presence of sufficient Tween 20 to displace most of the protein from the emulsion droplet surface leads to greatly enhanced emulsion creaming (and strongly non-Newtonian rheology) which is indicative of depletion flocculation by nonadsorbed surface-active material (protein and emulsifier). In emulsions containing a constant amount of surface-active material, the replacement of a very small fraction of Tween 20 by caseinate in a stable pure Tween 20 emulsion leads to enhanced creaming for a small fraction of the droplets, and this fraction increases with increasing replacement of emulsifier by protein. This behavior is probably due to depletion flocculation, although an alternative bridging mechanism is also a possibility. The overall stability of these sets of emulsions can be represented in terms of a global stability diagram containing regions of bridging flocculation and coalescence (low content of surface-active material), stability (intermediate content), and depletion flocculation (high content). Copyright 1999 Academic Press.     

Influence of the fat characteristics on the physicochemical behavior of oil-in-water emulsions based on milk proteins-glycerol esters mixtures

Oil-in-water emulsions based on 10% milk protein preparation, 0.3% mono-di-glycerides (MDG) and 8% vegetable oil were prepared for models typifying ice cream formulations. Two MDG (saturated and partially unsaturated) and four fats (oleic oil, hydrogenated and refined coconut oils, refined palm oil) were chosen to investigate the interactions occurring between the oil phase, the MDG and the milk proteins. Influence of temperature (4 °C) and ageing (24 h at 4 °C) was also tested. The emulsions were characterized for protein desorption, particle size distribution and rheological properties. The dynamic surface activity of the milk proteins and the MDG at the oil-water interface was also determined. At 20 °C, emulsions were mostly stabilized by proteins although the protein load at the globule surface strongly depended on the emulsifier and the oil phase natures. A displacement of the proteins adsorbed at the oil droplet interface by the lipid surfactant was a consequence of the temperature decrease and/or ageing step, suggesting a disruption of the interfacial protein interactions. This disruption was more or less marked depending on the physicochemical characteristics of the surfactant and the oil used (amount of crystallized matter, fatty acid chain length and unsaturation degree). In parallel, the variation of the apparent viscosity of the various emulsions upon temperature was well correlated with the solid fat content. On the whole, the results obtained suggested that not only the surfactant molecules, i.e. emulsifiers and proteins, but also the fat used in the emulsion formulation participated in the development of the interface characteristics and rheological properties.     

Stability studies of high-stable water-in-oil model emulsions

Different compositions and emulsification protocols were used to prepare stable water-in-oil (w/o) emulsions. Water, mineral oil, and a mixture of Span 80 and Tween 80 surfactants were combined to form emulsions that can be used as reference for electrolyte-free systems. Here, we have proposed emulsions wherein different properties were evaluated. Electrical conductivity measurements indicated that conductivity increases linearly with increasing surfactant content. The emulsions’ flow curves and viscoelastic behaviors were delineated by rheological measurements. Stability studies by centrifugal testing have shown that smaller the surfactant content, lower the stability, for any used stirring speeds. Furthermore, higher the applied mixing rate to make the emulsion, higher the stability, regardless of the amount of surfactant. Electrical field stability analysis showed, for all systems, that critical electric field (CEF) values were dependent on either surfactant amount and emulsion elastic modulus.     

Viscosity Variation During Evaporation of a Vegetable Oil Emulsion Stabilized by Tween 80R

The viscosity during evaporation was determined for emulsions in the system water, vegetable oil, a commercial surfactant, Tween 80^R, and the results related to the phases of the emulsion according to the phase diagram. The correlation between the viscosity and the fraction of liquid crystal in the emulsion was pronounced for the emulsions with the oil as the dispersed phase. For the emulsions with oil as the major phase, the effect was significantly less.     

Microstructure of beta-lactoglobulin-stabilized emulsions containing non-ionic surfactant and excess free protein: influence of heating

The influence of the non-ionic surfactant Tween 20 on the microstructure of beta-lactoglobulin-stabilized emulsions with substantial excess free protein present was investigated via confocal microscopy. The separate distributions of oil droplets and protein were determined using two different fluorescent dyes. In the emulsion at ambient temperature the excess protein and protein-coated oil droplets were associated together in a reversibly flocculated state. The pore-size distribution of the initial flocculated emulsion was found to depend on the surfactant/protein ratio R, and at higher values of R the system became more inhomogeneous due to areas of local phase separation. Evidence for competitive displacement of protein from the oil-water interface by surfactant was obtained only on heating (from 25 to 85 degrees C) during the process of formation of a heat-set emulsion gel. By measuring fluorescence intensities of the protein dye inside and outside of the oil-droplet-rich areas, we have been able to quantify the evolving protein distribution during the thermal processing. The results are discussed in relation to previous work on the competitive adsorption of proteins and surfactants in emulsions and the effect of emulsion droplets on the rheology of heat-set protein gels.     

A Three-Step Model for Submicron W/O Emulsion Formation in a Transitional-Phase Inversion Process

A three-step model of the transitional phase inversion (TPI) process for the formation of water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions is presented. Three types of emulsions exist in an emulsification process at different oil–water ratios and hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (HLB). A stable W/O emulsion was obtained using Sorbitan oleate (Span 80) and polyoxyethylenesorbitan monooleate (Tween 80) with a specified HLB and oil volume fraction. Oil was added into water, which contained the water-soluble surfactant, to dissolve the oil-soluble surfactant. This route allowed TPI to occur, and an interesting emulsification process was observed by varying the HLB, which corresponded to the change in the oil–water ratio. Two types of emulsions in the emulsification process were found: transition emulsion 1 (W/O/W high internal phase emulsion) and target emulsion 2 (W/O emulsion with low viscosity). This study describes the changes that occurred in the emulsification process.     

Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes as a Cosurfactant for Highly Concentrated Emulsions

The role of multi-wall carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) as a solid surfactant in highly concentrated water-in-oil emulsions was investigated. MWCNT were dispersed in the oil phase. These suspensions are viscoplastic fluids with the yield stress increasing by more than 1000 times with addition of 2% MWCNT, which demonstrates intensive “structurizing” ability. After emulsion preparation, MWCNT were concentrated at the interface, stabilizing emulsions. The dependence of the inversion point on MWCNT concentration was found. Emulsions containing up to 94 wt% of the aqueous phase can be prepared only when MWCNT is combined with conventional surfactant. Rheological properties of such compositions were measured. It was established that emulsions stabilized by a combined surfactant were more stable in comparison to conventional surfactant stabilized emulsion.     

Microgels as stimuli-responsive stabilizers for emulsions

Temperature- and pH-sensitive microgels from cross-linked poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-co-methacrylic acid are utilized for emulsion stabilization. The pH- and temperature-dependent stability of the prepared emulsion was characterized. Stable emulsions are obtained at high pH and room temperature. Emulsions with polar oils, like 1-octanol, can be broken by either addition of acid or an increase of temperature, whereas emulsions with unpolar oils do not break upon these stimuli. However, complete phase separation, independent of oil polarity, can be achieved by successive acid addition and heating. This procedure also offers a way to recover and recycle the microgel from the sample. Interfacial dilatational rheology data correlate with the stimuli sensitivity of the emulsion, and a strong dependence of the interfacial elastic and loss moduli on pH and temperature was found. The influence of the preparation method on the type of emulsion is demonstrated. The mean droplet size of the emulsions is characterized by means of flow particle image analysis. The type of emulsion [water in oil (w/o) or oil in water (o/w)] depends on the preparation technique as well as on the microgel content. Emulsification with high shear rates allows preparation of both w/o and o/w emulsions, whereas with low shear rates o/w emulsions are the preferred type. The emulsions are stable at high pH and low temperature, but instable at low pH and high temperature. Therefore, we conclude that poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-co-methacrylic acid microgels can be used as stimuli-sensitive stabilizers for emulsions. This offers a new and unique way to control emulsion stability.     

Effects of Surfactant Volume Fraction on the Antioxidant Efficiency and on The Interfacial Concentrations of Octyl and Tetradecyl p-Coumarates in Corn Oil-in-Water Emulsions

Surfactants have been used for decades in the food industry for the preparation of lipid-based emulsified food stuffs. They play two main roles in the emulsification processes: first they decrease the interfacial tension between the oil and water, facilitating droplet deformation and rupture; second, they reduce droplet coalescence by forming steric barriers. However, addition of surfactants to binary oil-water mixtures also brings up the formation of three-dimensional interfacial layers, surrounding each emulsion droplet, that significantly alter chemical reactivity. This is the case, for instance, in the inhibition reaction between antioxidants and the lipid radicals formed in the course of the spontaneous oxidation reaction of unsaturated lipids, which are commonly employed in the preparation of food-grade emulsions. The rate of the inhibition reaction depends on the effective concentrations of antioxidants, which are mostly controlled by the amount of surfactant employed in the preparation of the emulsion. In this work, we analyze the effects of the surfactant Tween 20 on the oxidative stability and on the effective concentrations of two model antioxidants derived from cinnamic acid, determining their interfacial concentrations in the intact emulsions to avoid disrupting the existing equilibria and biasing results. For this purpose, a recently developed methodology was employed, and experimental results were interpreted on the grounds of a pseudophase kinetic model.     

Investigation of the interactions in emulsions stabilized by a polymeric surfactant and its mixtures with an anionic surfactant

 The interaction of a nonionic polymeric surfactant with an anionic surfactant at the oil–water interface has been studied by its effects on the droplet size, stability and rheology of emulsions. Oil-in-water (o/w) emulsions were prepared using isoparaffinic oil and mixtures of a nonionic polymeric surfactant with an anionic surfactant. The macro-molecular surfactant was a graft copolymer with a backbone of polymethyl methacrylate and grafted polyethylene oxide (a graft copolymer with PEO chains of MW=750). The anionic surfactant was sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). The stabiliza-tion of the emulsion droplets was found to be different when using one or the other surfactant. The mechanism of stabilization of emulsion droplets by the macro-molecular surfactant is of the steric type while the stabilization by anionic surfactant is of the electrostatic repulsion type. Emulsions stabilized with mixtures present both types of stabilization. Other effects on the preparation and stabilization of emulsions were found to be dependent on properties associated with the surfactant molecular weight such as the Marangoni effect and Gibbs elasticity. The initial droplet size of the emulsions showed a synergistic effect of the surfactant combination, showing a minimum for the mixtures compared to the pure components. Emulsion stability also shows a synergistic interaction of both surfactants. Rheological measurements allow for the estimation of the interparticle interaction when measured as a function of volume fraction. Most of the effects observed can be attributed to the differences in interfacial tension and droplet radius produced by both surfactants and their mixtures. The elastic moduli are well explained on the basis of droplet deformation. Ionic versus steric stabilization produce little difference in the observed rheology, the only important differences observed concerned the extent of the linear viscoelasticity region. Received: 22 November 1996 Accepted: 24 March 1997     

Characterization of Optical Properties in Water-in-Oil Emulsion

There have been few studies on the factors that determine the overall appearance of emulsions. Optical properties are quite important in determining the perceived quality of emulsion-based products. The overall appearance of an emulsion is determined by the way that it interacts with electromagnetic radiation in the visible region of the spectrum, for example, reflection, transmission, adsorption, and scattering. These interactions are principally determined by the characteristics of emulsion droplets (size, concentration, and refractive index). The present study aims at characterizing the optical properties and rheological behaviors of water-in-oil emulsions, especially macroemulsions. There is a decrease in the absorbance spectra as increasing glycerin ratio in aqueous phase because the difference of refractive index between oil phase and aqueous phase decreased, which improved the transparency of water-in-oil emulsion. The absorbance of linear and branched surfactant emulsions were smaller than that of alkyl modified branched surfactant emulsion. Moreover the transparency of emulsions prepared with linear and branched surfactants was much clearer than that of alkyl modified branched surfactant emulsion. The absorbance spectra also showed that low polar oil attributed to the more transparent emulsion, compared with high polar or nonpolar oil. However, these kinds of oils were not helpful to prepare transparent emulsion because the appearance of these emulsions was translucent or opaque, even if polyols in aqueous phase was 30 wt%.     

SEMICONTINUOUS EMULSION POLYMERIZATION OF VINYL ACETATE X. KINETICS OF HOMOPOLYMERIZATION,CO POLYMERIZATION,AND INITIATOR DECOMPOSITION IN THE PRESENCE OF SULFOSUCCINATE-TYPE SURFACTANTS

ABSTRACT

Miorocrystalline cellulose stabilized emulsions (o/w) were evaluated by means of brightfield and polarized light microscopy, freeze-etch electron microscopy, droplet size analyses and rheologic measurements. These studies indicated that miorocrystalline cellulose (Avicel RC591 ) forms a network around emulsified oil droplets. This structure provides a mechanical barrier at the o/w interface which stabilizes the emulsion without the necessity for decreasing interfacial tension, as in conventional surfactant-stabilized emulsions. Rheologic studies indicated that emulsions containing Avicel RC591 had a considerable degree of thlxotropy which contributed to their stability. When Tween 80 was incorporated in this system, oil droplets coalesced indicating that the stability of the emulsion was affected adversely.