Creep response of bituminous mixtures—rheological model and microstructural interpretation

The main failure mechanisms of flexible pavements, such as low-temperature cracking, fatigue failure, and rutting are strongly influenced by the viscoelastic properties of asphalt. These viscoelastic properties originate from the thermorheological behavior of bitumen, the binder material of asphalt. In this paper, the bitumen behavior is studied by means of a comprehensive experimental program, allowing the identification of viscoelastic parameters of a power-law type creep model, indicating two time scales (short-term and long-term) within the creep deformation history of bitumen. Moreover, these characteristics of the creep deformation transfer towards bitumen-inclusion mixtures, as illustrated for mastic, consisting of bitumen and filler. For this purpose, the aforementioned power-law creep model is implemented into a micromechanical framework. Finally, the activation of the different creep mechanisms as a function of the loading rate is discussed, using viscoelastic properties obtained from both static and cyclic creep tests.     

Inverse Estimation of Cohesive Fracture Properties of Asphalt Mixtures Using an Optimization Approach

Tensile cracking in asphalt pavements due to vehicular and thermal loads has become an experimental and numerical research focus in the asphalt materials community. Previous studies have used the discrete element method (DEM) to study asphalt concrete fracture. These studies used trial-and-error to obtain local fracture properties such that the DEM models approximate the experimental load-crack mouth opening displacement response. In the current study, we identify the cohesive fracture properties of asphalt mixtures via a nonlinear optimization method. The method encompasses a comparative investigation of displacement fields obtained using both digital image correlation (DIC) and heterogeneous DEM fracture simulations. The proposed method is applied to two standard fracture test geometries: the single-edge notched beam test, SE(B), under three-point bending, and the disk-shaped compact tension test, DC(T). For each test, the Subset Splitting DIC algorithm is used to determine the displacement field in a predefined region near the notch tip. Then, a given number of DEM simulations are performed on the same specimen. The DEM is used to simulate the fracture of asphalt concrete with a linear softening cohesive contact model, where fracture-related properties (e.g., maximum tensile force and maximum crack opening) are varied within a predefined range. The difference between DIC and DEM displacement fields for each set of fracture parameters is then computed and converted to a continuous function via multivariate Lagrange interpolation. Finally, we use a Newton-like optimization technique to minimize Lagrange multinomials, yielding a set of fracture parameters that minimizes the difference between the DEM and DIC displacement fields. The optimized set of fracture parameters from this nonlinear optimization procedure led to DEM results which are consistent with the experimental results for both SE(B) and DC(T) geometries.     

Disk-shaped compact tension test for asphalt concrete fracture

A disk-shaped compact tension (DC(T)) test has been developed as a practical method for obtaining the fracture energy of asphalt concrete. The main purpose of the development of this specimen geometry is the ability to test cylindrical cores obtained from in-place asphalt concrete pavements or gyratory-compacted specimens fabricated during the mixture design process. A suitable specimen geometry was developed using the ASTM E399 standard for compact tension testing of metals as a starting point. After finalizing the specimen geometry, a typical asphalt concrete surface mixture was tested at various temperatures and loading rates to evaluate the proposed DC(T) configuration. The variability of the fracture energy obtained from the DC(T) geometry was found to be comparable with the variability associated with other fracture tests for asphalt concrete. The ability of the test to detect changes in the fracture energy with the various testing conditions (temperature and loading rate) was the benchmark for determining the potential of using the DC(T) geometry. The test has the capability to capture the transition of asphalt concrete from a brittle material at low temperatures to a more ductile material at higher temperatures. Because testing was conducted on ungrooved specimens, special care was taken to quantify deviations of the crack path from the pure mode I crack path. An analysis of variance of test data revealed that the prototype DC(T) can detect statistical differences in fracture energy resulting for tests conducted across a useful range of test temperatures and loading rates. This specific analysis also indicated that fracture energy is not correlated to crack deviation angle. This paper also provides an overview of ongoing work integrating experimental results and observations with numerical analysis by means of a cohesive zone model tailored for asphalt concrete fracture behavior.     

Measurements of Two Independent Viscoelastic Functions by Nanoindentation

Current nanoindentation measurement techniques normally assume that one material function (such as the Poisson's function) is a constant, and measures just one material function, such as the creep compliance in shear. For materials with significant viscoelastic effects and unknown viscoelastic functions, assuming a constant for one material function is not satisfactory. Accurate measurements require simultaneously determining two independent material functions. This paper provides a method to use nanoindentation to measure both bulk and shear relaxation functions. Two different nanoindenter tips, namely Berkovich and spherical indenters, are used for nanoindentation on polymers. Any two independent viscoelastic functions, such as bulk relaxation modulus and shear relaxation modulus, have different representations in the load–displacement curves obtained with these two indenters so that the two independent viscoelastic functions can be separated and determined. Two polymers, poly(vinyl acetate) (PVAc) and poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) were used in nanoindentation. Nanoindentation measurements were conducted on PVAc above glass transition temperature (Tg) and on PMMA below Tg. Both shear and bulk relaxation functions determined from nanoindentation were found in a reasonably good agreement with data obtained from conventional tests, providing validation of the method presented. The new method can be applied in measurements of two independent viscoelastic functions at sub-micron scale of very small amounts of materials such as polymeric films on a substrate, heterogeneous materials such as bones, tissues, and nanocomposites.     

长期荷载作用下CFST界面粘结损伤试验研究

为考察在役钢管混凝土界面粘结性能与荷载作用时间的关系,以荷载作用时间段为基本参数,完成了7根圆钢管混凝土试件的推出试验.试验结果表明,钢管混凝土界面粘结力随荷载作用时间的延长而减小.根据试验结果,得出各个试件的荷载—滑移曲线.基于ANSI/ACI308-1992混凝土养护规程,得出每个试件在荷载作用下的混凝土徐变应变.从损伤力学的角度出发,定义界面损伤变量,推导了混凝土徐变应变与损伤的关系.通过回归得出含损伤变量的界面粘结—滑移本构关系.     

Measurement of creep in rotating viscoelastic disks

This paper describes experimental efforts to measure the time-dependent radial deformations of rotating disks. Although these experiments were concerned with viscoelastic disks, the technique is not limited to this class of materials. The technique is based on the use of an electro-optical displacement follower which tracks the displacement of painted targets on the specimen disk. Associated electronic-compensation circuitry for cancelling the effects of changes in rigid-body motions is also described. The experimental apparatus and developmental problems are discussed and creep measurements are compared with predictions from the technical theory of linear viscoelasticity.     

纤维沥青混凝土FRA黏弹性预测模型

纤维沥青混凝土FRA(Fiber reinforced asphalt concrete)的力学行为取决于沥青混合料和纤维的物理属性及几何特征。通过三参数固体模型,考虑纤维的几何特性,构造了一种预测FRA黏弹性行为模型,推导出该模型的本构方程、蠕变柔量和松弛模量表达式。采用该模型研究了纤维体积分、比半径和弹性模量等对FRA松弛模量和蠕变柔量的影响。结果表明,纤维掺入量和比半径对FRA的松弛模量和蠕变柔量影响较大,而弹性模量影响较小。通过试验,验证了FRA预测模型具有较高的精度。在研究试验范围内,SMA-13沥青混凝土的聚丙烯腈纤维(PAN)最佳掺入量和长径比分别为0.3%～0.4%和600～900。     

Experimental and Numerical Analysis of Initial Plasticity in P91 Steel Small Punch Creep Samples

To date, the complex behaviour of small punch creep test (SPCT) specimens has not been completely understood, making the test hard to numerically model and the data difficult to interpret. This paper presents a novel numerical model able to generate results that match the experimental findings. For the first time, pre-strained uniaxial creep test data of a P91 steel at 600 ^°C have been implemented in a conveniently modified Liu and Murakami creep damage model in order to simulate the effects of the initial localised plasticity on the subsequent creep response of a small punch creep test specimen. Finite element (FE) results, in terms of creep displacement rate and time to failure, obtained by the modified Liu and Murakami model are in good agreement with experimental small punch creep test data. The rupture times obtained by the FE calculations which make use of the non-modified creep damage model are one order of magnitude shorter than those obtained by using the modified constitutive model. Although further investigation is needed, this novel approach has confirmed that the effects of initial localised plasticity, taking place in the early stages of small punch creep test, cannot be neglected. The new results, obtained by using the modified constitutive model, show a significant improvement with respect to those obtained by a ’state of the art’ creep damage constitutive model (the Liu and Murakami constitutive model) both in terms of minimum load-line displacement rate and time to rupture. The new modelling method will potentially lead to improved capability for SPCT data interpretation.     

Transient and steady-state nanoindentation creep of polymeric materials

The transient and steady-state nanoindentation creep of polymeric materials was investigated. The creep model is used to explain the experimental data of transient and steady-state creep dominated by viscoelastic deformation and power-law creep deformation, respectively. The Burgers viscoelastic model was used to interpret the transient creep in polymers under nano-indentation. Explicit expression for the displacement of transient creep was derived using the correspondence principle of linear viscoelasticity theory. The power law of strain rate-stress relation was used to explain the creep displacement during the steady state. Three polymers of poly(methyl methacrylate), hydroxyethyl methacrylate copolymer, and the fast-cure acrylic resin were used to measure the nanoindentation creep. The transient creep data are in good agreement with the predictions from the Burgers viscoelastic model. The creep displacement is mainly attributed to the viscous flow of the Kelvin element, and the computed values of viscosities (η_1,c, η_2,c) increase with decreasing preloading rate. By comparing the steady-state creep data with the power law of strain rate-stress relation, the stress exponents for the above polymeric materials were quantitatively determined.     

Damage Evolution and Crack Propagation in Semicircular Bending Asphalt Mixture Specimens

The damage and fracture behaviors of semicircular bending(SCB) asphalt mixture specimens with different orientation notches are experimentally and numerically investigated. In the numerical simulations, asphalt mixture is modeled as a two-phase material, namely a mix of coarse aggregates and asphalt mastic, and the mechanical behavior of asphalt mastic is characterized with the damage constitutive model and the damage-based fracture criterion. Some SCB experiments are performed on the asphalt mixture specimens with different orientation notches to validate the numerical method. Finally, the effects of notch orientation and aggregate distribution on crack path, damage distribution, and the load vs.displacement relation are numerically evaluated.     

Using Semi Circular Bending Test to Evaluate Low Temperature Fracture Resistance for Asphalt Concrete

This work presents a repeatable semi circular bending (SCB) fracture test to evaluate the low temperature fracture resistance of asphalt mixture. The fracture resistance of six asphalt mixtures, which represent a combination of factors such as binder type, binder modifier, aggregate type, and air voids, and two testing conditions of loading rate and initial notch length, was evaluated by performing SCB fracture tests at three low temperatures. Fracture energy was calculated from the experimental data. Experimental results indicated strong dependence of the low temperature fracture resistance on the test temperature. Experimental plots and low coefficient of variation (COV) values from three replicates show a satisfactory repeatability from the test. The results of the analysis showed that fracture resistance of asphalt mixtures is significantly affected by type of aggregate and air void content. Experimental results also confirmed the significance of binder grade and modifier type with relation to cracking resistance of asphalt mixtures. Analysis of result also indicated that both the loading rate and initial notch length had significant effect on the fracture energy at the highest test temperature, whereas the effect was strongly diluted at the two lower temperatures. No clear trend was found with the fracture peak load from either the effect of loading rate or notch length.     

持荷混凝土构件耐久性试验加载装置应用技术

针对混凝土构件耐久性试验环境的腐蚀性和多变性、试验设备容量的限制、混凝土的徐变及加载杆件的松弛等影响,对持荷试件加载装置进行了设计与研究。通过自平衡加载装置对紧固件施加扭矩来控制持荷试件的应力水平,并实时监测不同材质及环境下的扭矩系数、混凝土徐变和紧固件的应力松弛,以此获得扭矩的衰减规律,为试件应力补偿提供理论依据。采用两套加载装置对8根(套)试件进行了测试,试验结果表明,自平衡加载装置适用性强、加载及其补偿简便且能够满足试验要求,持荷试件应力损失在六周后趋于稳定。该装置及其应用技术可用于荷载与环境共同作用下混凝土构件的耐久性试验。     

黏弹性界面断裂分析的增量“加料”有限元法

提出了一种适用于黏弹性界面裂纹问题的增量“加料” 有限元方法. 利用弹性界面裂纹尖端位移场的解答,通过对应原理和拉普拉斯逆变换近似方法,得到了黏弹性界面裂纹的尖端位移场. 用该位移场构造了黏弹性界面裂纹“加料” 单元和过渡单元位移模式,推导了增量“加料” 有限元方程,求解有限元方程可获得应力强度因子和应变能释放率等断裂参量. 建立了典型黏弹性界面裂纹平面问题“加料” 有限元模型,计算结果表明,对于弹性/黏弹性界面裂纹和黏弹性/黏弹性界面裂纹,该方法都能得到相当精确地断裂参量,并能很好地反映蠕变和松弛特性,可推广应用于黏弹性界面断裂问题的计算分析.      

Quasi-static tensile deformation and fracture behavior of a highly particle-filled composite using digital image correlation method

Polymer bonded explosives (PBXs) are highly particle-filled composite materials. This paper experimentally studies the tensile deformation and fracture behavior of a PBX simulation by using the semi-circular bending (SCB) test. The deformation and fracture process of a pre-notched SCB sample with a random speckle pattern is recorded by a charge coupled device camera. The displacement and strain fields on the observed surface during the loading process are obtained by using the digital image correlation method. The crack opening displacement is calculated from the displacement fields, the initiation and propagation of the crack are analyzed. In addition, the damage evolution and fracture mechanisms of the SCB sample are analyzed according to the strain fields and the correlation coefficient fields at different loading steps.     

钢筋再生混凝土梁徐变性能试验研究

为揭示钢筋再生混凝土梁的徐变性能,通过三种持荷水平下9根钢筋再生混凝土梁试件的徐变(徐变应变与徐变挠度)对比试验,分析了钢筋再生混凝土梁徐变与时间的相关关系,研究了加荷幅值、初始变形(初始应变、初始挠度)等因素对钢筋再生混凝土梁徐变性能的影响规律,揭示了钢筋再生混凝土梁的徐变机理。研究结果表明:在45%极限荷载水平的持续作用下,钢筋再生混凝土梁总徐变挠度值为初始挠度值的62%左右,并且在前期发展较快,7d发展至总徐变挠度值的64%左右,后期变缓;钢筋再生混凝土梁徐变随着施加荷载幅值、初始变形的升高而有所增加。经历徐变过程后的钢筋再生混凝土梁,其承载性能有所下降,变化趋势为总徐变值越大,降低的幅度也越大。     

A Semi-Circular Bend Technique for Determining Dynamic Fracture Toughness

We propose and validate a fracture testing method using a notched core-based semi-circular bend (SCB) specimen loaded dynamically with a modified split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) apparatus. An isotropic fine-grained granitic rock, Laurentian granite (LG) is tested to validate this dynamic SCB method. Strain gauges are mounted near the crack tip of the specimen to detect the fracture onset and a laser gap gauge (LGG) is employed to monitor the crack surface opening distance. We demonstrate that with dynamic force balance achieved by pulse shaping, the peak of the far-field load synchronizes with the specimen fracture time. Furthermore, the evolution of dynamic stress intensity factor (SIF) obtained from the dynamic finite element analysis agrees with that from quasi-static analysis. These results prove that with dynamic force balance in SHPB, the inertial effect is minimized even for samples with complex geometries like notched SCB disc. The dynamic force balance thus enables the regression of dynamic fracture toughness using quasi-static analysis. This dynamic SCB method provides an easy and cost-effective way to measure dynamic fracture toughness of rocks and other brittle materials.     

SUS304材料的小冲孔蠕变试验研究

小冲孔蠕变试验技术是一种采用微小试样、近乎无损地评定材料高温力学性能的新方法,本文应用小冲孔蠕变试验技术评定SUS304材料的高温力学性能。在不同温度下,对SUS304奥氏体不锈钢进行载荷范围为443N～513N的小冲孔蠕变试验,得到材料在不同试验条件下的蠕变曲线,通过中断试样的扫描电镜观察分析了试样的变形过程,讨论了影响小冲孔蠕变试验的主要因素。试验结果表明,从小冲孔实验获得的蠕变曲线与传统单轴拉伸蠕变实验的蠕变曲线具有一致性,都具有三个明显的蠕变阶段,利用小冲孔蠕变试验技术测试材料的高温性能是可行的。试验载荷越大,试样瞬时变形挠度越大,蠕变第二阶段速率越快,断裂时间越短。载荷、温度、试样厚度、环境是小冲孔试验的主要影响因素,对试验结果影响很大。     

Predictions of nonlinear viscoelastic behavior using a hybrid approach

An approach for nonlinear viscoelastic characterization is presented which uses the combined measurements from creep and dynamic mechanical tests. Although the methodology should extend to several materials and geometries, this research concentrates on thin film polymers used in the manufacture of high altitude scientific balloons. Typically, the constitutive behavior of these materials is characterized through the use of linear viscoelastic techniques. Although this linear approach provides an accurate model for small strains or loads, these materials have been shown to be highly stress dependent and, consequently, it is necessary to identify this nonlinear behavior. Traditional creep measurements require extensive laboratory test times, yet the results obtained from dynamic mechanical analysis provide the capability to predict long term material performance without a lengthy experimentation program. However, dynamic mechanical methods are currently limited to linear response; thus, an approach is presented in which the stress-dependent behavior is derived from short-term creep measurements in a manner analogous to time-temperature superposition. Predictions of material response using linear and nonlinear approaches are compared with experimental results obtained from traditional long-term creep tests. Although linear pre-dictions deteriorate for large stresses, excellent agreement is shown for the nonlinear model.     

Performance of Rubberized and Hybrid Rubberized Concrete Structures under Static and Impact Load Conditions

In this study, rubberized concrete samples were prepared by partial substitution (5 %, 10 % and 20 % replacements by volume) of sand by waste crumb rubber, and tested under impact three-point bending load, as well as static load. Three types of specimens (size 50?×?100?×?500 mm) namely, plain concrete, rubberized concrete, and double layer concrete (with rubberized concrete top and plain concrete bottom) were loaded to failure in a drop-weight impact machine by subjecting to 20 N weight from a height of 300 mm, and another three similar specimens were used for the static load test. In both the tests, the load–displacement and fracture energy of each specimen were investigated. Finite-element simulations were also performed to study the dynamic behaviors of the samples, by using LUSAS V.14 software. It was noticed that, the impact tup, and inertial and bending loads increased with the increase in the percentage of sand replacement by crumb rubber. It was interesting to observe that these effects were more significant in the double layer specimen compared to the plain and rubberized concrete samples. The static peak bending load always decreased with increase of rubber in the mix. In general, the strength and energy absorbing capability of rubberized concrete was better under impact loading than under static loading. The simulated load against displacement behaviors of all the samples were validated by the experimental results.