Anisotropic damage mechanics for viscoelastic ice

We present a formulation of continuum damage in glacier ice that incorporates the induced anisotropy of the damage effects but restricts these formally to orthotropy. Damage is modeled by a symmetric second rank tensor that structurally plays the role of an internal variable. It may be interpreted as a texture measure that quantifies the effective specific areas over which internal stresses can be transmitted. The evolution equation for the damage tensor is motivated in the reference configuration and pushed forward to the present configuration. A spatially objective constitutive form of the evolution equation for the damage tensor is obtained. The rheology of the damaged ice presumes no volume conservation. Its constitutive relations are derived from the free enthalpy and a dissipation potential, and extends the classical isotropic power law by elastic and damage tensor dependent terms. All constitutive relations are in conformity with the second law of thermodynamics.PACS 83.60.Df, 62.20.Mk     

考虑损伤的内变量黏弹-黏塑性本构方程

基于Rice 不可逆内变量热力学框架,在约束构型空间中讨论材料的蠕变损伤问题. 通过给定具体的余能密度函数和内变量演化方程推导出考虑损伤的内变量黏弹-黏塑性本构方程. 通过模型相似材料单轴蠕变加卸载试验对一维情况下的本构方程进行参数辨识和模型验证,本构方程能很好地描述黏弹性变形和各蠕变阶段.不同的蠕变阶段具有不同的能量耗散特点. 受应力扰动后,不考虑损伤的材料系统能自发趋于热力学平衡态或稳定态. 在考虑损伤的整个蠕变过程中,材料系统先趋于平衡态再背离平衡态发展. 能量耗散率可作为材料系统热力学状态偏离平衡态的测度;能量耗散率的时间导数可用于表征系统的演化趋势;两者的域内积分值可作为结构长期稳定性的评价指标.      

Plastic spin: necessity or redundancy?

The plastic spin concept in large deformation anisotropic elastoplasticity theories with tensorial internal variables, is proved to be a necessary constitutive ingredient. Different inaccurate notions about the plastic spin are dispelled, and its presence in the theory is demystified as something very simple and straightforward. To this extent it is necessary to disassociate the plastic spin concept and the conjugate notion of constitutive spin from the foundation of kinematics, which caused confusion in the past, and define it only in relation to the constitutive equations of evolution of the tensorial internal variables. There, the plastic spin is related to the orientation aspect of such constitutive equations, and the multiplicity of the different internal variables suggests the necessity to have a different spin for each variable. In the process, a straightforward constitutive framework is developed which is based on classical hyperelasticity, yield criteria and invariance requirements of the constitutive functions under superposed rigid body rotation. Ad-hoc assumptions about stress corotational or convected rates and other fuzzy suggestions for different spins are not part of this development. Other topics such as the concept and simplifying effect of the spinless unstressed configuration and its comparison with the isoclinic configuration, some computational aspects, and the effect of small elastic strains are discussed, and all along the significance of plastic spin in the different equations is evaluated.     

Constitutive models for granular materials including quasi-static frictional behaviour: Toward a thermodynamic theory of plasticity

This work deals with the thermodynamic formulation of constitutive models for materials whose quasi-static behaviour is governed by internal friction, e.g., dry granular materials. The process of internal friction is represented here phenomenologically with the help of a second-order, symmetric-tensor-valued internal variable. A general class of models for the evolution of this variable is considered, including as special cases a hypoelastic-like form for this relation as well as the hypoplastic form of Kolymbas (1991). The thermodynamic formulation is carried out in the context of the Müller-Liu entropy principle. Among other things, it is shown that for the hypoelastic-type models, a true equilibrium inelastic Cauchy stress exists. On the other hand, such a stress does not exist for the hypoplastic model due to its rate-independence and incremental non-linearity. With the help of a slight generalization of the notion of thermodynamic equilibrium, i.e., to thermodynamic “quasi-equilibrium,” however, such a Cauchy stress can be formulated for the hypoplastic model. As it turns out, this quasi-equilibrium for the Cauchy stress represents a thermodynamic generalization of the so-called quasi-static stress postulated for example by Goddard (1986) in the context of his viscoplastic model for a frictional-dissipative, and in particular for granular, materials. Received January 22, 1999     

Formulation of a damage internal state variable model for amorphous glassy polymers

The following article proposes a damage model that is implemented into a glassy, amorphous thermoplastic thermomechanical inelastic internal state variable framework. Internal state variable evolution equations are defined through thermodynamics, kinematics, and kinetics for isotropic damage arising from two different inclusion types: pores and particles. The damage arising from the particles and crazing is accounted for by three processes of damage: nucleation, growth, and coalescence. Nucleation is defined as the number density of voids/crazes with an associated internal state variable rate equation and is a function of stress state, molecular weight, fracture toughness, particle size, particle volume fraction, temperature, and strain rate. The damage growth is based upon a single void growing as an internal state variable rate equation that is a function of stress state, rate sensitivity, and strain rate. The coalescence internal state variable rate equation is an interactive term between voids and crazes and is a function of the nearest neighbor distance of voids/crazes and size of voids/crazes, temperature, and strain rate. The damage arising from the pre-existing voids employs the Cocks–Ashby void growth rule. The total damage progression is a summation of the damage volume fraction arising from particles and pores and subsequent crazing. The modeling results compare well to experimental findings garnered from the literature. Finally, this formulation can be readily implemented into a finite element analysis.     

A theoretical and computational framework for anisotropic continuum damage mechanics at large strains

The main objective of this work is the formulation and algorithmic treatment of anisotropic continuum damage mechanics at large strains. Based on the concept of a fictitious, isotropic, undamaged configuration an additional linear tangent map is introduced which allows the interpretation as a damage deformation gradient. Then, the corresponding Finger tensor – denoted as damage metric – constructs a second order, internal variable. Due to the principle of strain energy equivalence with respect to the fictitious, effective space and the standard reference configuration, the free energy function can be computed via push-forward operations within the nominal setting. Referring to the framework of standard dissipative materials, associated evolution equations are constructed which substantially affect the anisotropic nature of the damage formulation. The numerical integration of these ordinary differential equations is highlighted whereby two different schemes and higher order methods are taken into account. Finally, some numerical examples demonstrate the applicability of the proposed framework.     

Torsion of an Elastomeric Cylinder Undergoing Microstructural Changes

A constitutive theory which accounts for scission and cross linking processes in polymers during deformation is used to analyze the torsion of a circular bar. In each increment of deformation at a material element of the torsion bar, some volume fraction of material undergoes scission and then re-cross links to form a new network with a new reference state. The scission process reduces the ability of the material to transmit stress. The newly formed networks restore the ability of the material to transmit stress. The total stress is assumed to be the superposition of the stress in the remainder of the original material, determined by its deformation from its original configuration, and the stress in each newly formed network, determined by the deformation in that network from the configuration at which it formed.The interaction of this material response with the inhomogeneous deformation during torsion is studied. The analysis shows the evolution of regions of original and modified material, the softening effects associated with the process of scission and re-cross linking and the occurrence of residual stress and deformation on removal of load.     

A second gradient theoretical framework for hierarchical multiscale modeling of materials

A theoretical framework for the hierarchical multiscale modeling of inelastic response of heterogeneous materials is presented. Within this multiscale framework, the second gradient is used as a nonlocal kinematic link between the response of a material point at the coarse scale and the response of a neighborhood of material points at the fine scale. Kinematic consistency between these scales results in specific requirements for constraints on the fluctuation field. The wryness tensor serves as a second-order measure of strain. The nature of the second-order strain induces anti-symmetry in the first-order stress at the coarse scale. The multiscale internal state variable (ISV) constitutive theory is couched in the coarse scale intermediate configuration, from which an important new concept in scale transitions emerges, namely scale invariance of dissipation. Finally, a strategy for developing meaningful kinematic ISVs and the proper free energy functions and evolution kinetics is presented.     

微电子元件制造过程中的应力分析

本文分析了一个典型的微电子元件在创造过程中残余应力的分布和演化．与以往大多数类似的分析工作的不同之处在于，我们并不是对一个已成型的结构再回过头去仅仅分析其温度历史下相应的应力状态，而是追踪了该结构成型过程的各个方面，尤其是由于工艺过程中结构几何形状的变化而引起的应力重分布．采用的方法则是控制某些材料所对应的单元在某一特定的时刻以后才起作用，这种方法对于各种制造过程的分析非常有效．     

An existence result for a model of complete damage in elastic materials with reversible evolution

In this paper, we consider a model describing evolution of damage in elastic materials, in which stiffness completely degenerates once the material is fully damaged. The model is written by using a phase transition approach, with respect to the damage parameter. In particular, a source of damage is represented by a quadratic form involving deformations, which vanishes in the case of complete damage. Hence, an internal constraint is ensured by a maximal monotone operator. The evolution of damage is considered “reversible”, in the sense that the material may repair itself. We can prove an existence result for a suitable weak formulation of the problem, rewritten in terms of a new variable (an internal stress). Some numerical simulations are presented in agreement with the mathematical analysis of the system.     

An energetic formulation of a one-dimensional model of superelastic SMA

This paper presents an energetic framework for the study of the macroscopic evolution of shape memory alloys (SMA) with softening behavior. It is written for a class of standard rate-independent materials with an internal variable derived from the Drucker–Ilyushin work property. This one-dimensional model is defined by three material functions of the internal variable and one material parameter. The quasi-static evolution is formulated for a one-dimensional bar under traction and is based on two physical principles: a stability criterion which consists in selecting the local minima of the total energy and an energy balance condition which requires the absolute continuity of the total energy. The stability criterion aims to overcome the non-uniqueness issue associated with the intrinsic softening character of SMA while the energy balance condition accounts for evolutions even with possible time discontinuities. While being consistent with the classical Kuhn–Tucker formulation of the phase transformations, such energetic formulation proved to be more suitable than this latter for the study of stress-softening SMA. Both homogeneous and non-homogenous solutions are investigated with respect to this variational evolution problem. Specifically, we show the instability of the homogeneous states for softening materials and construct, in this latter case, a non-homogeneous stable evolution that follows a transformation stress line which corresponds to the Maxwell line of the softening intrinsic behavior.     

混凝土材料损伤耦合的非线性粘弹性本构关系

根据不可逆热力学原理和推广的Onsager原理建立了内变量演化的非线性方程;采用迭代方法得到了非线性方程的迭代解,并根据Lipschitz条件给出了迭代解的收敛条件。由此,建立了一维应力条件下的非线性粘弹性本构关系。将这一本构关系推广至三维应力情况,并考虑了状态方程和损伤演化,在剪切诱导材料粘性的前提下建立了混凝土损伤耦合的非线性粘弹性本构关系。在该关系式中：损伤演化方程与混凝土的粘性应变积累相关;状态方程服从三次多项式的形式。实验结果表明：此模型能够比较好地表征混凝土材料在达到强度极限前后的强化与软化的特征。     

单晶体塑性滑移有限变形下的应力计算

为了探讨和发展单晶金属材料的非弹性有限变形分析方法,提出一种单晶体各向异性弹塑性分析的计算格式.该方法是一种以初始构形为变形计算参考构形的描述方法,它对单晶体塑性构形的演化用增量计算以跟随加载路径,而在应力计算时在卸载构形的基础上用Hencky对数弹性应变来计算总量的应力以保证计算的稳定和收敛;通过求解满足瞬时屈服条件和应力与弹性应变关系的广义胡克定律的非线性方程组来搜索激活滑移系.     

一种适合橡胶类材料的非线性粘弹性本构模型

借助非线性流变模型建立大变形情况非线性粘弹材料的本构关系,考虑到大多数橡胶类材料具有的几乎不可压缩性,以及体积响应和剪切响应的流变性能不同,将变形梯度乘法分解为等容部分和体积变形部分,给出了一种适合橡胶类材料的非线性粘弹性本构模型,并模拟了粘滞效应。对于极快或极慢的过程,该模型退化为橡胶弹性理论;在小变形情况下退化为经典的广义Maxwell粘弹性材料。模型与热力学第二定律相容,适合于大规模数值分析。     

粘塑性变截面杆中冲击波的演化

讨论了粘塑性变截面杆中的一维应力波传播规律。在粘塑性本构理论框架的基础上,利用特征关系和冲击波阵面上的突跃条件,得出了冲击波在传播过程中的演化规律,包括其微分方程和解析表达式,并对Bodner和Johnson-Cook材料和不同收缩形式的杆中冲击波的演化规律进行了讨论,同时计算和讨论了杆中冲击波后方应力波传播规律的特点。     

A constitutive theory for shape memory polymers. Part II: A linearized model for small deformations

A constitutive theory is developed for shape memory polymers. It is to describe the thermomechanical properties of such materials under large deformations. The theory is based on the idea, which is developed in the work of Liu et al. [2006. Thermomechanics of shape memory polymers: uniaxial experiments and constitutive modelling. Int. J. Plasticity 22, 279-313], that the coexisting active and frozen phases of the polymer and the transitions between them provide the underlying mechanisms for strain storage and recovery during a shape memory cycle. General constitutive functions for nonlinear thermoelastic materials are used for the active and frozen phases. Also used is an internal state variable which describes the volume fraction of the frozen phase. The material behavior of history dependence in the frozen phase is captured by using the concept of frozen reference configuration. The relation between the overall deformation and the stress is derived by integration of the constitutive equations of the coexisting phases. As a special case of the nonlinear constitutive model, a neo-Hookean type constitutive function for each phase is considered. The material behaviors in a shape memory cycle under uniaxial loading are examined. A linear constitutive model is derived from the nonlinear theory by considering small deformations. The predictions of this model are compared with experimental measurements.     

A constitutive theory for shape memory polymers. Part I: Large deformations

A constitutive theory is developed for shape memory polymers. It is to describe the thermomechanical properties of such materials under large deformations. The theory is based on the idea, which is developed in the work of Liu et al. [2006. Thermomechanics of shape memory polymers: uniaxial experiments and constitutive modeling. Int. J. Plasticity 22, 279-313], that the coexisting active and frozen phases of the polymer and the transitions between them provide the underlying mechanisms for strain storage and recovery during a shape memory cycle. General constitutive functions for nonlinear thermoelastic materials are used for the active and frozen phases. Also used is an internal state variable which describes the volume fraction of the frozen phase. The material behavior of history dependence in the frozen phase is captured by using the concept of frozen reference configuration. The relation between the overall deformation and the stress is derived by integration of the constitutive equations of the coexisting phases. As a special case of the nonlinear constitutive model, a neo-Hookean type constitutive function for each phase is considered. The material behaviors in a shape memory cycle under uniaxial loading are examined. A linear constitutive model is derived from the nonlinear theory by considering small deformations. The predictions of this model are compared with experimental measurements.