Large eddy simulation of hot and cold fluids mixing in a T-junction for predicting thermal fluctuations

Temperature fluctuations in a mixing T-junction have been simulated on the FLUENT platform using the large eddy simulation （LES） turbulent flow model and a sub-grid scale Smagorinsky-Lilly model. The normalized mean and root mean square temperatures for describing time-averaged temperature and temperature fluctuation intensity, and the velocity are obtained. The power spectrum densities of temperature fluctuations, which are key parameters for thermal fatigue analysis and lifetime evaluation, are analyzed. Simulation results are consistent with experimental data published in the literature, showing that the LES is reliable. Several mixing processes under different conditions are simulated in order to analyze the effects of varying Reynolds number and Richardson number on the mixing course and thermal fluctuations.     

燃烧室两相流场亚网格燃烧模型的研究

在三维任意曲线坐标系下采用不同的亚网格燃烧模型对环形燃烧室火焰筒气液两相湍流瞬态反应流进行大涡模拟．计算中所采用的数学度模型有：k方程亚网格尺度模型估算亚网格湍流黏性;热通量辐射模型估算辐射换热,分别采用亚网格EBU燃烧模型（E-A model）、亚网格二阶矩输运方程模型（SOM）和亚网格二阶矩代数模型（SOM-A）估算化学反应速率．并在非交错网格系统下气相采用SIMPLE算法和混合差分格式求解,液相采用Lagrange处理,并用PSIC算法对其进行求解．通过实验结果和计算结果的比较,表明在三维任意曲线坐标系下对燃烧室火焰简两相湍流油雾燃烧流场进行大涡模拟,3种不同的亚网格燃烧模型都能真实反映两相湍流化学反应流流动及实际燃烧过程,而采用亚网格二阶矩输运方程模型稍优于其他两种亚网格燃烧模型．     

A new development of the dynamic procedure in large-eddy simulation based on a Finite Volume integral approach. Application to stratified turbulence

A Finite Volume-based large-eddy simulation method is proposed along with a suitable extension of the dynamic modelling procedure that takes into account for the integral formulation of the governing filtered equations. Discussion about the misleading interpretation of FV in some literature is addressed. Then, the classical Germano identity is congruently rewritten in such a way that the determination of the modelling parameters does not require any arbitrary averaging procedure and thus retains a fully local character. The numerical modelling of stratified turbulence is the specific problem considered in this study, as an archetypal of simple geophysical flows. The original scaling formulation of the dynamic sub-grid scale model proposed by Wong and Lilly (Phys. Fluids 6(6), 1994) is suitably extended to the present integral formulation. This approach is preferred with respect to traditional ones since the eddy coefficients can be independently computed by avoiding the addition of unjustified buoyancy production terms in the constitutive equations. Simple scaling arguments allow us not to use the equilibrium hypothesis according to which the dissipation rate should equal the sub-grid scale energy production. A careful a priori analysis of the relevance of the test filter shape as well as the filter-to-grid ratio is reported. Large-eddy simulation results are a posteriori compared with a reference pseudo-spectral direct numerical solution that is suitably post-filtered in order to have a meaningful comparison. In particular, the spectral distribution of kinetic and thermal energy as well as the viscosity and diffusivity sub-grid scale profiles are illustrated. The good performances of the proposed method, in terms of both evolutions of global quantities and statistics, are very promising for the future development and application of the method.     

Large eddy simulations of a turbulent thermal plume

Large eddy simulations of a three-dimensional turbulent thermal plume in an open environment have been carried out using a self-developed parallel computational fluid dynamics code SMAFS (smoke movement and flame spread) to study the thermal plume’s dynamics including its puffing, self-preserving and air entrainment. In the simulation, the sub-grid stress was modeled using both the standard Smagorinsky and the buoyancy modified Smagorinsky models, which were compared. The sub-grid scale (SGS) scalar flux in the filtered enthalpy transport equation was modeled based on a simple gradient transport hypothesis with constant SGS Prandtl number. The effect of the Smagorinsky model constant and the SGS Prandtl number were examined. The computation results were compared with experimental measurements, thermal plume theory and empirical correlations, showing good agreement. It is found that both the buoyancy modification and the SGS turbulent Prandtl number have little influence on simulation. However, the SGS model constant C _s has a significant effect on the prediction of plume spreading, although it does not affect much the prediction of puffing.     

Large-Eddy Simulation of the Flow Over a Circular Cylinder at Reynolds Number 3900 Using the OpenFOAM Toolbox

The flow over a circular cylinder at Reynolds number 3900 and Mach number 0.2 was predicted numerically using the technique of large-eddy simulation. The computations were carried out with an O-type curvilinear grid of size of 300 × 300 × 64. The numerical simulations were performed using a second-order finite-volume method with central-difference schemes for the approximation of convective terms. A conventional Smagorinsky and a dynamic k-equation eddy viscosity sub-grid scale models were applied. The integration time interval for data sampling was extended up to 150 vortex shedding periods for the purpose of obtaining a fully converged mean flow field. The present numerical results were found to be in good agreement with existing experimental data and previously obtained large-eddy simulation results. This gives an indication on the adequacy and accuracy of the selected large-eddy simulation technique implemented in the OpenFOAM toolbox.     

Large eddy simulation of fuel injection and mixing process in a diesel engine

The large eddy simulation(LES) approach implemented in the KIVA-3V code and based on one-equation sub-grid turbulent kinetic energy model are employed for numerical computation of diesel sprays in a constant volume vessel and in a Caterpillar 3400 series diesel engine.Computational results are compared with those obtained by an RANS(RNG k-ε) model as well as with experimental data.The sensitivity of the LES results to mesh resolution is also discussed.The results show that LES generally provides flow and spray characteristics in better agreement with experimental data than RANS;and that small-scale random vortical structures of the in-cylinder turbulent spray field can be captured by LES.Furthermore,the penetrations of fuel droplets and vapors calculated by LES are larger than the RANS result,and the sub-grid turbulent kinetic energy and sub-grid turbulent viscosity provided by the LES model are evidently less than those calculated by the RANS model.Finally,it is found that the initial swirl significantly affects the spray penetration and the distribution of fuel vapor within the combustion chamber.     

Development of Gas-Particle Euler-Euler LES Approach: A Priori Analysis of Particle Sub-Grid Models in Homogeneous Isotropic Turbulence

A new large eddy simulation (LES) approach for particle-laden turbulent flows in the framework of the Eulerian formalism for inertial particle statistical modelling is developed. Local instantaneous Eulerian equations for the particle cloud are first written using the mesoscopic Eulerian formalism (MEF) proposed by Février et al. (J Fluid Mech 533:1–46, 2005), which accounts for the contribution of an uncorrelated velocity component for inertial particles with relaxation time larger than the Kolmogorov time scale. Second, particle LES equations are obtained by volume filtering the mesoscopic Eulerian ones. In such an approach, the particulate flow at larger scales than the filter width is recovered while sub-grid effects need to be modelled. Particle eddy-viscosity, scale similarity and mixed sub-grid stress (SGS) models derived from fluid compressible turbulence SGS models are presented. Evaluation of such models is performed using three sets of particle Lagrangian results computed from discrete particle simulation (DPS) coupled with fluid direct numerical simulation (DNS) of homogeneous isotropic decaying turbulence. The two phase flow regime corresponds to the dilute one where two-way coupling and inter-particle collisions are not considered. The different particle Stokes number (based on Kolmogorov time scale) are initially equal to 1, 2.2 and 5.1. The mesoscopic field properties are analysed in detail by considering the particle velocity probability function (PDF), correlated velocity power spectra and random uncorrelated velocity moments. The mesoscopic fields measured from DPS+DNS are then filtered to obtain large scale fields. A priori evaluation of particle sub-grid stress models gives comparable agreement than for fluid compressible turbulence models. It has been found that the standard Smagorinsky eddy-viscosity model exhibits the smaller correlation coefficients, the scale similarity model shows very good correlation coefficient but strongly underestimates the sub-grid dissipation and the mixed model is on the whole superior to pure eddy-viscosity model.     

Large Eddy Simulation of a Bluff Body Stabilised Premixed Flame Using Flamelets

Large Eddy Simulations of an unconfined turbulent lean premixed flame, which is stabilised behind a bluff body, are conducted using unstrained flamelets as the sub-grid scale combustion closure. The statistics from the simulations are compared with the corresponding data obtained from the experiment and it is demonstrated that the experimental observations are well captured. The relative positioning of the shear layers and the flame brush are analysed to understand the radial variations of the turbulent kinetic energy at various streamwise locations. These results are also compared to confined bluff body stabilised flames, to shed light on the relative role of incoming and shear driven turbulence on the behaviour of the flame brush and the turbulent kinetic energy variation across it.     

Large Eddy Simulation of a Methane–Air Diffusion Flame

Large Eddy Simulation has been applied to a piloted methane/air diffusion flame—the Sandia D flame—for which detailed experimental data are available. To evaluate the reacting density, temperature and species mass fractions a conserved scalar laminar flamelet formulation is employed, utilising a single virtually unstrained flamelet. The results of two simulations are discussed, comparing the use of the standard Smagorinsky model and a dynamic variant for closure of the unknown sub-grid stress. The chosen sub-grid scale model is shown to be extremely influential on the final solution. Whilst the use of the standard model results in a relatively poor simulation the dynamic closure offers an excellent velocity field prediction throughout the flame. Although the flame does show some strain rate influence on burning, particularly close to the inlet nozzle, the relatively simple ‘unstrained’ flamelet model applied is shown to provide an accurate representation of temperature and major species distribution.     

高能炸药摩擦感度的数值模拟

为了研究炸药摩擦安全性,利用熔化摩擦模型对几种高能炸药的摩擦感度进行了数值模拟,结果符合实验,并根据热分解反应速率分析了感度规律。由于炸药熔点一般低于点火温度,所以基于一个考虑熔化现象的炸药摩擦模型,在炸药感度实验条件下进行了一维数值模拟,给出了炸药熔化结果和摩擦点火的时间:4种摩擦感度较弱的炸药包括DATB、NQ、TATB和TNT的点火时间的顺序即感度顺序符合实验结果,说明摩擦点火模型适应性。进一步结合炸药热分解反应速率的大小顺序,数值模拟证明,在一定摩擦强度下,点火顺序会发生交换,说明摩擦感度实验不能完全说明炸药摩擦感度强弱顺序。     

Large-Eddy Simulation of a Turbulent Hydrogen Diffusion Flame

In this work a large-eddy simulation (LES) of a turbulent hydrogen jet diffusion flame is presented. The numerical method handles fluctuations of density in space and in time, but assumes density to be independent of pressure (incompressibility). The chemical composition of the fluid is described by solving the filtered transport equation for mixture fraction f. Density, viscosity and temperature are evaluated assuming chemical equilibrium. To account for sub-grid fluctuations of f, its sub-grid distribution is presumed to have the shape of a β-function. The results of the simulation are discussed extensively. The influence of inlet boundary conditions is addressed and radial profiles at different axial positions are shown for a complete set of one-point statistical data. Agreement of numerical results and experimental data is very good. Furthermore, a comparison of Reynolds- and Favre-averages is done and energy spectra at different locations in the flame are discussed. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

飞机风挡结构抗鸟撞一体化设计技术研究

结合大型非线性有限元分析软件,实践了飞机风挡结构由初步设计、数值仿真以及实验验证的一体化设计过程,建立了适于风挡结构材料的非线性黏弹性本构计算接口程序,对合理选取单元类型、材料模型、边界条件影响以及试验设计等工作细节进行了深入研究,通过实验与仿真计算结果的对比,验证了数值仿真计算模型的精度．为飞机风挡的抗鸟撞结构设计-数值仿真-实验验证一体化技术提供了支持论证．     

Relaxation system based sub-grid scale modelling for large eddy simulation of Burgers' equation

An implicit sub-grid scale model for large eddy simulation is presented by utilising the concept of a relaxation system for one dimensional Burgers' equation in a novel way. The Burgers' equation is solved for three different unsteady flow situations by varying the ratio of relaxation parameter (ε) to time step. The coarse mesh results obtained with a relaxation scheme are compared with the filtered DNS solution of the same problem on a fine mesh using a fourth-order CWENO discretisation in space and third-order TVD Runge-Kutta discretisation in time. The numerical solutions obtained through the relaxation system have the same order of accuracy in space and time and they closely match with the filtered DNS solutions.     

Analysis of hydrodynamic and thermal dispersion in porous media by means of a local approach

A pore scale analysis is implemented in this numerical study to investigate the behavior of microscopic inertia and thermal dispersion in a porous medium with a periodic structure. The macroscopic characteristics of the transport phenomena are evaluated with an averaging technique of the controlling variables at a pore scale level in an elementary cell of the porous structure. The Darcy–Forchheimer model describes the fluid motion through the porous medium while the continuity and Navier–Stokes equations are applied within the unit cell. An average energy equation is employed for the thermal part of the porous medium. The macroscopic pressure loss is computed in order to evaluate the dominant microscopic inertial effects. Local fluctuations of velocity and temperature at the pore scale are instrumental in the quantification of the thermal dispersion through the total effective thermal diffusivity. The numerical results demonstrate that microscopic inertia contributes significantly to the magnitude of the macroscopic pressure loss, in some instances with as much as 70%. Depending on the nature of the porous medium, the thermal dispersion may have a marked bearing on the heat transfer, particularly in the streamwise direction for a highly conducting fluid and certain values of the Peclet number.     

Stochastic nonlinear bending response of laminated composite plates with system randomness under lateral pressure and thermal loading

In this paper, the effect of sensitivity of randomness in system parameters on the nonlinear transverse central deflection response of laminated composite plates subjected to transverse uniform lateral pressure and thermal loading is examined. System parameters such as the lamina material properties, expansion of thermal coefficients, lamina plate thickness and lateral load are modelled as basic random variables. A higher order shear deformation theory in the von-Karman sense is used to model the system behavior of the laminated plate. A direct iterative-based C ⁰ nonlinear finite element method in conjunction with the first-order perturbation technique developed by the authors is extended for thermal problem to obtain the second-order response statistics, i.e., mean and variance of the nonlinear transverse deflection of the plate. Typical numerical results of composite plates with temperature independent and dependent material properties subjected to uniform temperature and combination of uniform and transverse temperature are obtained for various combinations of geometric parameters, uniform lateral pressures, staking sequences and boundary conditions. The results have been compared with those available in the literature and an independent Monte Carlo simulation.     

质量传输模型在考虑热力学效应空化流动计算中的应用评价

通过二次开发技术，将Merkle、Kunz、Kubota、Singhal四种不同的质量传输模型和液氮物质属性随温度变化函数等引入了计算软件CFX。在考虑热力学效应的条件下，对绕翼型的液氮空化流动进行了数值计算，并与实验结果进行对比分析。结果表明：由于传输方程的物理机制不同，造成各模型的计算结果尤其是对热力学效应影响的描述存在明显的差别。Merkle模型计算得到的压力和温度分布与实验最为接近，质量传输过程能较好地反映温度场变化的影响，从而能较好地反映热力学效应对空化发展的影响；Singhal模型计算得到的结果与实验数据差距最大，其模拟得到的质量传输过程不能很好地反应温度流场的变化的影响。     

Effect of porosity and the inlet heat transfer fluid temperature variation on the performance of cool thermal energy storage system

This paper discusses the results of numerical and experimental study of an encapsulated cool thermal energy storage system. The storage system is a cylindrical storage tank filled with phase change material encapsulated in spherical container, placed in a refrigeration loop. A simulation program was developed to evaluate the temperature histories of the heat transfer fluid and the phase change material at any axial location during the charging period. The present analysis aims at studying the influence of the inlet heat transfer fluid temperature and porosity on system performance. An experimental setup was designed and constructed to conduct the experiments. The results of the model were validated by comparison with experimental results of temperature profiles for different inlet heat transfer fluid temperatures and porosity. The results are in good agreement with the experimental results. The results reported are much useful for designing cool thermal energy storage systems.     

基于Vreman亚格子模型的有限开口空间内热驱动流数值模拟

利用基于Vreman亚格子模型的大涡模拟技术对有开口的单室和双室房间内热驱动流进行了数值模拟,利用函数分析法定量分析了模拟结果的准确性,并与Smagorinsky亚格子模型的模拟结果进行了比较.结果表明,Vreman和Smagorinsky亚格子模型的计算结果均能够满足工程的需求,但Vreman亚格子模型在开口附近区域的温度和U速度计算结果在整体上比Smagorinsky亚格子模型更接近实验值;Vreman亚格子模型未像Sma-gorinsky亚格子模型那样过高地估算壁面附近高温区域的粘性耗散;对于单室房间内热烟气层高度的预测,采用Vreman模型得到的计算结果准确性比Smagorinsky亚格子模型提高近50％.     

LES prediction of space-time correlations in turbulent shear flows

We compare the space-time correlations calculated from direct numerical simulation(DNS) and large-eddy simulation(LES) of turbulent channel flows.It is found from the comparisons that the LES with an eddy-viscosity subgrid scale(SGS) model over-predicts the space-time correlations than the DNS.The overpredictions are further quantified by the integral scales of directional correlations and convection velocities.A physical argument for the overprediction is provided that the eddy-viscosity SGS model alone does not includes the backscatter effects although it correctly represents the energy dissipations of SGS motions.This argument is confirmed by the recently developed elliptic model for space-time correlations in turbulent shear flows.It suggests that enstrophy is crucial to the LES prediction of spacetime correlations.The random forcing models and stochastic SGS models are proposed to overcome the overpredictions on space-time correlations.     

Multi‐scale simulation with a hybrid Boussinesq‐RANS hydrodynamic model

A hybrid wave model is developed for simulation of water wave propagation from deep water to shoreline. The constituent wave models are the irrotational, 1‐D horizontal Boussinesq and 2‐D vertical Reynolds‐averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS). The models are two‐way coupled, and the interface is placed at a location where turbulence is relatively small. Boundary conditions on the interfacing side of each model are provided by its counterpart model through data exchange. Prior to the exchange, a data transformation step is carried out due to the differences in physical variables and approximations employed in both models. The hybrid model is tested for both accuracy and speedup performance. Tests consisting of idealized solitary and standing wave motions and wave overtopping of nearshore structures show that: (1) the simulation results of the current hybrid model compare well with the idealized data, experimental data, and pure RANS model results and (2) the hybrid model saves computational time by a factor proportional to the reduction in the size of the RANS model domain. Finally, a large‐scale tsunami simulation is provided for a numerical setup that is practically unapproachable using RANS model alone; not only does the hybrid model offer more rapid simulation of relatively small‐scale problems, it provides an opportunity to examine very large total domains with the fine resolution typical of RANS simulations. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.