Sources of variability in traction data

A 18.4R38 tyre was tested at 124 kPa inflation pressure, approximately 24 kN axle load in a firm and in a tilled Yolo-loam soil using (i) constant slip, (ii) constant draught, (iii) varying slip and (iv) varying draught tyre testing procedures. The results indicated that the constant slip test procedure leads to repeatable and consistent results whereas a variable slip test procedure leads to considerable scatter in the data. The constant draught test procedure yielded acceptable results. Varying slip appeared to influence the system dynamics much more than varying draught during tyre testing. An accurate method of predicting “true rolling radius” and “true slip” for an assumed zero condition is presented. The concept of motion resistance, its variability due to assumed zero conditions, and possible interpretations are discussed. The traction test data indicates that the motion resistance is not constant but varies with slip.     

Micro-plasticity of surface steps under adhesive contact: Part II—Multiple-dislocation mediated contact hardening

The study of micro-plastic behavior of rough surface contacts is the critical link towards a fundamental understanding of contact, friction, adhesion, and surface failures at small length scales. In the companion paper (Yu, H.H., Shrotriya, P., Gao, Y.F., Kim, K.-S., 2007. Micro-plasticity of surface steps under adhesive contact. Part I. Surface yielding controlled by single-dislocation nucleation. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 55, 489–516), we have studied the onset of surface yielding due to single-dislocation nucleation from a stepped surface under adhesive contact. Here we analyze the contact hardening behavior due to multiple dislocations in a two-dimensional dislocation model. Continuum micro-mechanical analyses are used to derive the configurational force on the dislocation, while a modified Rice–Thomson criterion is used to model dislocation nucleation. Dislocations nucleated from the surface step are stabilized and pile up as a result of the balance between the resolved driving force and the non-zero lattice resistance in the solid. The dislocation pileup will exert a strong back stress to prevent further dislocation nucleation and thus lead to the contact hardening behavior, the degree of which depends on the slip-plane orientation. Particularly, we find that dislocation interactions between two slip planes can make the contact loading order-of-magnitude easy to nucleate multiple dislocations, which is thus named “latent softening”. A mechanistic explanation shows that the latent softening is closely related to the stress-concentration mode mixity at the surface step. Dislocation nucleation will modify the geometric characteristics of the surface step, so that the contact-induced stress state near the step, as described by the mode mixity, changes, which influences the subsequent dislocation nucleation. Our calculations show that the dislocation pileup on one slip plane can even cause the spontaneous dislocation nucleation on the other slip plane without further increase of the contact load. Furthermore, it is found that rough surface contacts at small length scale can lead to the dislocation segregation and the formation of a surface tensile sub-layer. The discrete-dislocation model presented here and in the companion paper provides novel insights in bridging the atomistic simulations and continuum plastic flow analysis of surface asperity contact.     

Experimental and numerical determinations of the initial surface of phase transformation under biaxial loading in some polycrystalline shape-memory alloys

Biaxial proportional loading such as tension (compression)–internal pressure and bi-compression tests are performed on a Cu-Zn-Al and Cu-Al-Be shape memory polycrystals. These tests lead to the experimental determination of the initial surface of phase transformation (austenite→martensite) in the principal stress space (σ₁,σ₂). A first “micro–macro” modeling is performed as follows. Lattice measurements of the cubic austenite and the monoclinic martensite cells are used to determine the “nature” of the phase transformation, i.e. an exact interface between the parent phase and an untwinned martensite variant. The yield surface is obtained by a simple (Sachs constant stress) averaging procedure assuming random texture. A second modeling, performed in the context of the thermodynamics of irreversible processes, consists of a phenomenological approach at the scale of the polycrystal. These two models fit the experimental phase transformation surface well.     

Stability analysis of annular flow structure, using a discrete form of the “two-fluid model”

The differential form of the “two-fluid model” for annular flow, neglecting surface tension, is ill-posed, and it is not suited for examining the stability of the steady-state solutions with respect to the average film thickness. It is shown here that a discrete (difference) representation of the two-fluid model may lead to an appropriate criterion for the stability of the steady-state solutions. Exactly the same criterion is obtained from the requirement that the kinematic waves will propagate in the downstream direction. The suggested discrete form of the “two-fluid model” is used to perform transient simulation and for examining the system response to finite disturbances.     

Mathematical modelling of transformation plasticity in steels II: Coupling with strain hardening phenomena

The models for the plastic behaviour of steels during phase transformations proposed in Part I and in a previous paper ( et al. [1986b]) for the case of ideal-plastic phases are extended to include strain-hardening effects (isotropic or kinematic hardening). An expression for the transformation plastic strain rate is obtained by modifying the treatment of Part I in a suitable manner. The classical plastic strain rate is also studied in a similar way. Complementary evolution equations for the hardening parameters are finally given, taking into account the possible “recovery” of strain hardening during transformations (i.e., the fact that the newly formed phase can “forget,” partially or totally, the previous hardening).     

Weakly nonlocal envelope solitary waves: numerical calculations for the Klein-Gordon (φ) equation

“Weakly nonlocal” solitary waves differ from ordinary solitary waves by possessing small amplitude, oscillatory “wings” that extend indefinitely from the large amplitude “core”. Such generalized solitary waves have been discovered in capillarygravity water waves, particle physics models, and geophysical Rossby waves. In this work, we present explicit calculations of weakly nonlocal envelope solitary waves. Each is a sine wave modulated by a slowly-varying “envelope” that itself propagates at the group velocity. Our example is the cubically nonlinear Klein-Gordon equation, which is a model in particle physics (φ⁴ theory) and in electrical engineering (with a different sign). Both cases have weakly nonlocal“breather” solitons. Via the Lorentz invariance, each breather generates a one-parameter family of nonlocal envelope solitary waves. The φ⁴ breather was described and calculated in earlier work. This generates envelope solitons which have “wings” that are (mostly) proportional to the second harmonic of the sinusoidal factor. In this article, we calculate breathers and envelope solitary waves for the second, electrical engineering case. Since these, unlike the φ⁴ waves, contain only odd harmonics, the envelope solitary waves are nonlocal only via the third harmonic.     

Mechanics of adhesive contact at the nanoscale: The effect of surface stress

At small length scales, the adhesion and surface effect are of great significance, both of which play important roles in the contact between two elastic solids. In this study, the classical Johnson–Kendall–Roberts (JKR) adhesive contact theory is generalized to the nanoscale at which the surface effect is considered. The influence of the surface stress on the JKR adhesive contact is investigated by employing the non-classical Boussinesq fundamental solutions. It is found that, compared with the classical theory, the pull-off force increases while the critical contact radius decreases as a result of the surface effect. Numerical results show that a relative error of 10% can be introduced in the pull-off force when the indenter radius is less than 20 nm. A detailed theoretical analysis of this interesting phenomenon is presented based on dimensional analysis, and two scaling laws for the adhesive contact at the nanoscale are constructed. These two new scaling laws reveal that the pull-off force is relevant to the elastic properties of the bulk materials, which is different from the classical adhesive contact theory. The present work is promising for the engineering applications in micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) and nano-intelligent devices.     

Fatigue crack growth in high and low strength steel under torsional loading

During loading of a crack in mode III the crack surfaces in contact slide against each other giving rise to friction, abrasion and mutual support, thereby reducing the effective stress at the crack tip (“sliding mode crack closure”). This phenomenon was investigated in a high strength steel (AISI 4340) and in a low strength steel (AISI C1018) in circumferentially notched specimens under pure cyclic torsion and combined loading (cyclic torsion plus static axial load). The influence of sliding mode crack closure on fatigue crack propagation is shown and “true” crack growth values (without the sliding mode crack closure influence) are determined on the basis of an extrapolation procedure. Explanations are given for causes of the various fracture modes observed, such as “factory roof” fracture, macroscopically flat mode III fracture and “lamella” fracture. Finally the scientific and technical importance of sliding mode crack closure is demonstrated.     

Correlations predicting frictional pressure drop and liquid holdup during horizontal gas-liquid pipe flow with a small liquid holdup

Experimental data and correlations available in the literature for the liquid holdup ε_L and the pressure gradient ΔP_TP/L for gas-liquid pipe flow, generally, do not cover the domain 0 < ε_L < 0.06. Reliable pressure-drop correlations for this holdup range are important for calculating flow rates of natural gas, containing traces of condensate. In the present paper attention is focused on reliable measurements of ε_L and ΔP_TPIL values and on the development of a phenomenological model for the liquid-holdup range 0 < ε_L < 0.06. This model is called the “apparent rough surface” model and is referred to as the ARS model. The experimental results presented in this paper refer to air-water and air-water + ethyleneglycol systems with varying transport properties in horizontal straight smooth glass tubes under steady-state conditions. The holdup and pressure gradient values predicted with the ARS model agree satisfactorily with both our experimental results and data obtained from the literature referring to small liquid-holdup values 0 < ε_L < 0.06. Further, it has been shown that in the domain 38 < < 72 mPa m the interfacial tension of the gas-liquid system has no significant effect on the liquid holdup. The pressure gradient, however, increases slightly with decreasing surface tension values.     

Effects of fuel properties on the burning characteristics of collision-merged alkane/water droplets

The combustion characteristics of freely falling droplets, individually generated by the merging of colliding alkane and water droplets, were experimentally investigated. The outcome of the collision droplets was firstly studied and then the subsequent burning processes such as the flame appearance, ignition and burning behaviors were recorded, through either visual observation or microphotography with the aid of stroboscopic lightening. If the merged droplets were exhibited in an insertive manner, while the water droplet inserted into the alkane droplet, these yield the burning behaviors prior to the end of flame were very much similar to that of pure alkane. The burning was ended with droplet extinction for lower-C alkane, and with either droplet “flash vaporization” or extinction for hexadecane. And if the merged droplets were in adhesive manner, for hexadecane with large water content, they either could not be ignited for the large merged droplets, or be ignited with a much prolonged ignition delay, followed by a soot-reducing flame and an ending of droplet extinction for the small merged droplets. “Homogeneous” explosion was not observed in any of the tests, and “heterogeneous” explosion, induced by trapped air bubbles, occasionally occurred for merged droplets with C-atom in alkane is higher than dodecane. And the sudden disappearance of droplet definitely decreased the burning time and thus enhanced the burning intensity. Besides, the fuel mass consumption rates were increased, even in the cases that having droplet extinction, because of the enlargement of the surface area due to the stuffing of water droplet.     

On the centrifugal separation of a bulk mixture

The centrifugal separation of a mixture of particles and fluid in an axisymmetric container is examined. The flow consists of three distinct regions—mixture, sediment and purified fluid—with Ekman boundary layers at the interfaces and walls. In the settling process, the mixture and pure fluid acquire retrograde and prograde rotations relative to the tank. This flow pattern, and the shape and locus of the interface which are easily determined, provide another simple means to compare mixture theory and experiment. It is shown that when the Coriolis force is important, the pure fluid layer on the “outwardly” inclined wall is not thin. Moreover the interface between the mixture and the pure fluid is not perpendicular to the centrifugal force. Both features contrast those of the gravitational Boycott effect. As a consequence, there is no obvious enhancement of settling due to geometrical configuration.     

On the boundary layer/riblets interaction mechanisms and the prediction of turbulent drag reduction

Turbulent drag reduction experienced by ribletted surfaces is the result of both (1) the interaction between riblet peaks and the coherent structures that characterize turbulent near-wall flows, and (2) the laminar sublayer flow modifications caused by the riblet shape, which can balance, under appropriate conditions, the drag penalty due to the increased wetted surface. The latter “viscous” mechanism is investigated by means of an analytical model of the laminar sublayer, which removes geometrical restrictions and allows us to take into account “real” shapes of riblet contours, affected by manufacturing inaccuracies, and to compute even for such cases a parameter, called protrusion height, related to the longitudinal mean flow. By considering real geometries, riblet effectiveness is clearly shown to be related to the difference between the longitudinal and the transversal protrusion heights. A simple method for the prediction of the performances of ribletted surfaces is then devised. The predicted and measured drag reduction data, for different riblet geometries and flow characteristics, are in close agreement with each other. The soundness of the physical interpretation underlying this prediction method is consequently confirmed.     

Dynamic global postbuckling behavior of beams by cell-to-cell mapping

A dynamic approach was applied to study the behavior of an axially loaded buckled inextensible beam. The “cell-to-cell mapping method” was used to define the equilibrium positions of the beam and their domains of attraction. These domains were pictured on a displacement-velocity phase plane and the magnitudes of “safe” deflection and velocity disturbances, under the action of which the structure will resume its pre-interrupted equilibrium position, were thus determined. It was found that material properties do not affect the value of safe deflection, but the safe velocity disturbance is proportional to .     

A mechanical model for the adhesive contact with local sliding induced by a tangential force

Adhesion has been demonstrated to play an important role in contact and friction between objects at small scales. While various models have been established for adhesive contact under normal forces, studies on the adhesive contact under tangential force have been far fewer, which if any, are mostly confined to the non-slipping situations. In the present work, a model has been proposed for adhesive contact with local sliding under tangential forces. Herein, the onset of local sliding in adhesive contact has been addressed by assuming the nucleation of dislocations. By analogy with the emission of dislocations at a crack tip, the critical tangential force for the onset of sliding has been determined, and its effect on the evolution of contact size has also been studied. Comparison with relevant experiments has verified the validity of the present model.     

Macroscopic properties of a two-phase potential dispersion composed of identical unit cells

The potential flow solution for flow of fluid past dispersed objects in a “unit cell” is used to derive several macroscopic properties, including the mean pressures in the phases and on the walls, the momentum and kinetic energy density, the force function and mechanical energy flux. These properties are derived from the “resistivity” of the unit cell, which has a tensorial character in general. Various macroscopic forms of Bernoulli's equation relate the properties. Equations of motion for uniform arrays of cells are derived. Various other features, such as minimization of kinetic energy density and forces at concentration jumps, are analyzed.     

Embrittlement of nano-scale structures

A dealloyed surface layer formed on a Cu-30 Au alloy due to a corrosion process is capable of inducing intergranular cleavage of the normally ductile substrate during subsequent mechanical loading. The structure of the dealloyed layer consists of nanoscale pores that were formed by the selective removal of copper atoms during the anodic polarization. To contribute to the understanding of environmentally — induced embrittlement, we presently compute the stress state within the porous layer and in the bulk substrate due to the eigenstraining by the dealloying. The results of the calculations shows that a tensile stress state exists in the porous dealloyed layer while a compressive stress state is generated in the substrate. Implications on the “film-induced cleavage” model of stress corrosion cracking mechanism are discussed.     

Low-density layer formation and “lifting force” effect at micro- and meso-scale levels

The processes at various scale levels in the contact area of interacting objects under high-energy action will be examined from the viewpoint of mesomechanics. Modeling of contact area at atomic- and meso-scale levels was carried out on the base of discrete computational approach (method of particles). Molecular dynamic method was used at the micro-scale level; movable cellular automata method—at the meso-scale level. The gradient of velocity in areas near the surface leads to formation of low density and fragmented areas. This effect is accompanied by the failure of crystal lattice stability and intensive mixing process at the atomic level. The mechanisms of mass transfer in contact area were discussed. The results allow us to explain a host of experimental data of mechanochemistry such as phase formation at friction surface, alloy formation due to contact interaction under “pressure + shear” loading conditions.     

接触应力对FCB车轮钢组织演变与性能的影响

利用双盘滚动摩擦磨损试验机进行了贝氏体车轮钢的滚动磨损试验,采用扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、电子背散射衍射(EBSD)分析不同接触应力条件下贝氏体车轮钢次表层微观组织演变. 结果表明:在滚动磨损条件下,磨损机制由黏着磨损转变为疲劳磨损,增大接触应力对黏着磨损阶段的磨损量影响不大,但会显著增加疲劳磨损阶段的磨损量;贝氏体车轮钢在塑性变形的过程中,贝氏体铁素板条中位错逐渐增值、先累积形成小角度晶界,而后形成大角度晶界,使贝氏体铁素体发生细化;接触应力的大小影响表层组织的演变,当接触应力增至1 150 MPa时,晶粒细化为超细等轴晶,继续增加接触应力,组织变化并不明显. 接触应力大小会影响贝氏体车轮钢的表面硬度. 接触应力增加使贝氏体车轮钢的表面硬度增高,硬化层深度增大.