Free-edge stresses and progressive cracking in surface coatings of circular torsion bars

This paper considers the explicit solutions of free-edge stresses near circumferential cracks in surface coatings of circular torsion bars and their application in determining the progressive cracking density in the coating layers. The problem was formulated within the framework of linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM). The free-edge stresses near crack tip and the shear stresses in the cross-section of the torsion bar were approached in explicit forms based on the variational principle of complementary strain energy. Criterion for progressive cracking in the coating layer was established in sense of strain energy conservation, and the crack density is thereby estimated. Effects of external torque, aspect ratio, and elastic properties on the density of progressive cracking were examined numerically. The present study shows that, in the sense of inducing a given crack density, compliant coating layer with lower modulus has much higher critical torque than that of a stiffer one with the same geometries and substrate material, i.e., compliant coating layer has greater cracking tolerance. Meanwhile, the study also indicates that thicker surface coating layer is more pliant to cracking than the thinner ones. The present model can be used for analyzing the damage mechanism and cracking tolerance of surface coatings of torsion shafts and for data reduction of torsional fracture test of brittle surface coatings, etc.     

An evaluation of weldable strain gages in nuclear-reactor environments

The paper presents the results of an experiment to evaluate the performance of weldable strain gages (Microdot) in nuclear-reactor environments. The technique used to study the behavior of strain gages in an experimental reactor is described. Integral-lead weldable strain gages attached to constant-strain cantilever beams were installed in the core of NRX reactor. Presurized bellows were used to induce in the cantilever beams strains which were measured with the strain gages. After more than 200 days under irradiation in air at 70 to 100° C (estimated fast neutron dose: 0.19×10²⁰ n/cm²) the strain gages were still in satisfactory operating condition. Strains up to 1000 μin./in. were measured successfully. The measurements were repeated with accuracy. Although the total gage-resistance variation during the entire experiment was approximately 7.5 percent, the strain-gage sensitivity was practically not affected by irradiation. It was demonstrated that the gage-resistance variation can be successfully compensated. The average drift rate for an active and a compensating gage coupled in a half-bridge arrangement was below 1.5 μin./in./h. There was no indication of insulation-resistance degradation due to the effects of irradiation. The lowest resistance measurement was above 100 MΩ at 80°C. The effects of nuclear radiation on other strain-gage characteristics such as linearity, hysteresis, creep and signal noise were also investigated. It is concluded that weldable strain gages are very promising for nuclear applications.     

Residual Stress Determination by Hole Drilling Combined with Optical Methods

An overview is provided of the use of eight different optical methods with hole drilling to determine residual stresses. The methods considered are: brittle and photoelastic coatings, Moire interferometry, holographic interferometry, electronic speckle pattern interferometry, interferometric strain rosette, digital image correlation and shearography. A number of applications are summarized, such as the use of hole drilling with holographic interferometry to investigate stresses in rock structures accessed by deep boreholes and to determine manufacturing-induced residual stresses in fillets of small radii.     

电弧喷涂纳米结构涂层的组织与磨损性能

基于机器人自动化高速电弧喷涂技术在45#钢基体上制备了铁基纳米结构涂层.研究了纳米结构涂层在不同磨损速度?不同载荷下的磨损行为,并利用3Cr13涂层进行对比试验.采用扫描电镜?能谱分析仪,透射电镜和X射线衍射仪等设备对涂层的组织结构进行了表征,利用纳米压痕仪对涂层的力学性能进行了分析.结果表明:涂层的组织主要由非晶相和α(Fe,Cr)相纳米晶组成;平均尺寸为46nm的α(Fe,Cr)相纳米晶均匀分布于非晶基体内.涂层的组织均匀,结构致密,平均孔隙率含量为1.7%.纳米结构涂层具有较高的显微硬度;随着磨损速度升高,载荷增加,纳米结构涂层的磨损量也随之增加.纳米结构涂层具有良好的耐磨性,同一磨损条件下,其相对耐磨性为3Cr13涂层的2.6倍.纳米结构涂层主要磨损机制为脆性断裂机制.     

等离子喷涂纳米和常规喂料WC-Co涂层在干摩擦和水环境中的摩擦磨损性能研究

采用大气等离子喷涂法分别以纳米和常规喂料制备出2种WC—Co涂层,在SRV摩擦磨损试验机上考察了2种涂层在干摩擦和水环境中的摩擦磨损性能．结果表明：在干摩擦和水环境中,纳米WC—Co涂层的摩擦系数和磨损率均小于常规WC—Co涂层;纳米和常规WC—Co涂层的磨损机制差异不大,在干摩擦下其磨损机制主要以粘着磨损、剥落和磨粒磨损为主;在水环境中,WC—Co涂层与Si3N4配副时的摩擦系数和磨损量较与不锈钢球配副时高,2种摩擦副的磨损机理有所不同,前者主要以剥落和疲劳磨损为主,后者主要以粘着磨损为主,伴有轻微的磨粒磨损．     

Effects of the thickness of birefringent coatings

It is known that birefringent coatings are a powerful experimental technique for the determination of surface strains of metals or other opaque bodies. In this paper the complete state of strain in such a coating is determined for an arbitrary one-dimensional variation of the displacement at the metal surface. It is shown that strain gradients or curvature of the surface have a pronounced effect on the observed birefringence, and must be taken into consideration. This can be done by means of two correction factors derived in the paper which take into account the elastic properties of the coating and its thickness. An experimental procedure is outlined for determining an unknown distribution of strain at the metal surface on the basis of the observed photoelastic pattern.     

微量Ag元素对TiAlN涂层摩擦学性能的影响

采用电弧离子镀技术利用Ti₅₀Al₅₀、Ti₅₀Al₄₉Ag₁、Ti₅₀Al₄₅Ag₅合金靶沉积制备出了TiAlN及不同Ag含量的TiAlAgN涂层. 利用球-盘式摩擦磨损试验机研究了室温、200、400和600 ℃等温度下的摩擦学性能;通过扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、X射线衍射仪(XRD)、显微硬度计、表面轮廓仪和划痕仪对磨损前后涂层的表面形貌、微观结构、硬度及涂层结合力进行了分析. 结果表明:TiAlN、TiAlAgN(Ag原子百分数0.12%)、TiAlAgN(Ag原子百分数0.30%)涂层的厚度分别为为4.18、5.31和4.69 μm,硬度分别为HV_0.2 2 049.4、HV_0.2 1 672.9、HV_0.2 1 398.5;TiAlN、TiAlAgN涂层的衍射峰位与面心立方的TiN相同,掺入Ag后TiAlN涂层的择优取向变为N(220)面. 三种涂层在不同温度下的磨损机理主要为黏着磨损与磨粒磨损. 室温时TiAlN涂层的摩擦系数比其他两种涂层要小约0.3,200 ℃时三种涂层的磨损率较大,400 ℃时掺Ag涂层的耐磨效果达到最佳. 此外,当Ag原子百分数在0.12%~0.30%范围时,随着Ag含量增加,涂层的结合力降低.      

涂层厚度对硬脆涂层结合强度的影响

应用有限元分析的方法分析二维模型涂层层数以及涂层厚度对涂层/基体结合强度的影响已得到广泛研究。然而二维模型相比三维模型未能考虑宽度方向应力应变的影响,导致求解精度低。因此对三维模型涂层层数以及厚度对涂层/基体结合强度影响的研究显得实为重要,但这方面研究比较少。本文建立有限元三维模型,通过比较有限元模拟结果与赫兹接触精确解析解验证了模型的可靠性,讨论了涂层厚度对涂层/基体界面最大剪切力影响关系。结果表明,剪应力最小值随着涂层厚度的增加逐渐减小,然而剪应力最大值却随着厚度的增加先减小后增大,在0.4mm时取得最小值;随着涂层厚度的增加,涂层/基体结合处剪应力Z方向突变减小,涂层内部剪应力Z方向突变增大,但是突变位置向涂层表面靠近,而且涂层/基体结合处X方向的剪应力变化随着涂层厚度增加趋于平缓。     

Application of birefringent coatings to glass-fiber-reinforced plastics

The application of birefringent coatings to plane-stress problems associated with orthotropic-glassreinforced plastic materials is treated. The improvement in the sensitivity of the birefringent-coating method due to the high strength and low modulus of the glassfiber-reinforced plastic materials is noted. Next, the effect of a mismatch in Poisson's ratio between the specimen material and coating is examined and a correction factor is developed which permits determination of boundary stresses even when the mismatch is large. Finally, the stress-strain relations for an orthotropic material are reviewed and an example of a nonsymmetric stress distribution associated with a symmetric fringe pattern is covered.     

A Note on Fracture Models Incorporating Surface Elasticity

Several recent papers that describe an approach to developing a theory of brittle fracture incorporating crack-surface elasticity have asserted that such models predict bounded stresses and strains at crack-tips in two dimensions. It is proved in this short note that the assertion is incorrect. While incorporating surface elasticity into fracture models in the setting of the linearized theory of elasticity does remove the square-root stress/strain singularity at crack-tips seen in classical theories that do not take account of crack-surface interfacial effects, it does not predict bounded stresses and strains but rather diminishes the singularity to being logarithmic.     

各向同性材料中微裂纹的最大屏蔽效应

通过对微裂纹屏蔽不同来源的分析及计算,发现在各向同性脆性材料中,残余应力释放引起的微裂纹对主裂尖产生最大屏蔽效应时该微裂纹的倾角与最大张应力的方向没有明显的对应关系．在Hutchinson[1]所指出的屏蔽效应的第二个来源中,还应计及微裂纹形成引起的远场应力在微裂纹处产生的应力场的释放从而导致应力场的再分布．     

Complete determination of the stress tensor in a field using brittle coatings

Brittle coatings are used today, almost exclusively, to determine the directions of the principal stresses at a point located on the surface of a loaded body. This is a strange paradox of history, because no other method can give more complete information about the stress tensor in a whole field. This is so, event if it is also true that the precision of the determinations of some of the components of the tensor may not be as high as that generally obtained using other methods.This paper has the following objectives: (1) to show the application of the brittle-coating method to the determination of very complicated stress distributions like those which develop in thin-walled pressure vessels manufactured using circumferential and longitudinal weldings, (2) to show that the use of brittle coatings is the most practical method to solve some of these problems when boundary conditions are not well known, (3) to show that the method can, in certain cases (when the two principal stresses have the same sign), give the complete determination of the tensor in large parts of the field of complex stress distributions, and that it is the only method that can obtain that amount of information in one experiment, (4) to show how in other cases (when the two principal stresses are of opposite sign) that information can be obtained in two experiments, (5) to show the possibility of using the method to study yielding problems, (6) to review some of the advantages and limiations of the method and (7) to recommend an organized effort to find new materials which may permit the method to become popular again, without exhibiting some of the serious limitations that have significantly restricted its use. Some of the deficiencies in the present state of knowledge are described.     

Dynamic torsion testing of nanocrystalline coatings using high-speed photography and digital image correlation

The strength and ductility of microcrystalline and nanocrystalline tungstsen carbide-cobalt (WC-Co) cermets have been evaluated by employing a stored energy Kolsky bar apparatus, high-speed photography and digital image correlation. The test specimens were thin-walled tubular AI7075-T6 substrates 250 μm thick, coated with a 300 μm thick microcrystalline or nanocrystalline WC-Co layer with an average grain size of about 3 μm and 100 nm, respectively. Dynamic torsion experiments reported in this paper reveal a shear modulus of 50 GPa and a shear strength of about 50 MPa for both microcrystalline and nanocrystalline WC-Co coatings. The use of high-speed photography along with digital image correlation has shown that damage to the coating coincides with a significant softening on the stress-strain curve. The coating failed in mode III, and strong interactions between the crack faces were probably responsible for the increase in load after failure of the coating. The overall failure of the coating-substrate system was not brittle but rather progressive and controlled by the ductility of the aluminum substrate. A methodology for investigating damage kinetics and failure has been established. This methodology can be applied to examine the behavior of other advanced materials that can be manufactured as coatings on ductile substrates. Manufacturing coatings free of initial microcracks remains a significant challenge. Research on optimization of the spray deposition parameters should be pursued to produce high-quality nanostructured coatings that can fully exploit the benefits of nano-size grains.     

Investigation of strain gages for use at cryogenic temperatures

Strain sensitivity and resistance changes in Advance, Karma, Budd Alloy, Nichrome V, and stabilized Armour D foil gages, and Nichrome V-platinum temperature-compensated gages were evaluated at cryogenic temperatures. The more promising gage types, as determined from these studies, were tested to strain levels up to 11,000 μin./in. with tensile specimens. The other performance characteristics that were investigated included zero drift, creep, hysteresis, linearity and gage element size effects. A mounting method developed for foil gages to be used at cryogenic temperatures is described.     

Fracture-mode map of brittle coatings: Theoretical development and experimental verification

Brittle coatings, upon sufficiently high indentation load, tend to fracture through either ring cracking or radial cracking. In this paper, we systematically study the factors determining the fracture modes of bilayer material under indentation. By analyzing the stress field developed in a coating/substrate bilayer under indentation in combination with the application of the maximum-tensile-stress fracture criterion, we show that the fracture mode of brittle coatings due to indentation is determined synergistically by two dimensionless parameters being functions of the mechanical properties of coating and substrate, coating thickness and indenter tip radius. Such dependence can be graphically depicted by a diagram called ‘fracture-mode map’, whereby the fracture modes can be directly predicated based on these two dimensionless parameters. Experimental verification of the fracture-mode map is carried out by examining the fracture modes of fused quartz/cement bilayer materials under indentation. The experimental observation exhibits good agreement with the prediction by the fracture-mode map. Our finding in this paper may not only shed light on the mechanics accounting for the fracture modes of brittle coatings in bilayer structures but also pave a new avenue to combating catastrophic damage through fracture mode control.     

Experimental study of large-diameter thin-wall pressure vessels

An experimental stress analysis of three cylindrical pressure vessels with radius/thickness ratios ranging from 100 to 238 and different head closures is described. Brittle coatings and electrical strain gages were employed to determine stress distributions over the entire outer surface of the vessels. Electrical strain gages alone were used to determine stresses on the inside surface of the vessels. Particular emphasis was placed on determining stress concentrations and on nonlinear effects produced by geometric imperfections. An attempt was also made to correlate the failure, which started in the cylindrical portion of the three vessels, with the elastic-stress distribution. It was found that the imperfections in the cylinder were not significant if the vessel was fabricated from a ductile steel. However, if the vessel was constructed from a high-strength but brittle steel, the imperfections significantly lower the bursting strength of the vessel.     

Al含量对FeCrNiCoCu高熵合金涂层组织结构及冲蚀性能的影响

采用放电等离子烧结(SPS)制备不同Al含量的Al_xFeCrNiCoCu(x=0,1,2,3)高熵合金涂层.通过XRD、SEM和冲蚀磨损等检测方法,研究了Al含量对该高熵合金涂层的组织及冲蚀磨损性能的影响.结果表明:FeCrNiCoCu高熵合金的微观组织主要为简单FCC结构的富Cu相及富Al相.随着Al元素增加,涂层的微观结构出现由FCC向BCC的转变.同时,涂层的硬度、耐冲蚀性也显著提高.随着冲蚀角度的增加,涂层的冲蚀磨损量逐渐增加,表现出脆性材料的冲蚀磨损特性.在冲蚀角度为90°时,随着Al元素的增加,涂层的主要冲蚀磨损机理逐渐由微切削和锻造挤压转变为犁削.     

Photoelastic coatings

While photoelastic-model analysis is an effective method to measure stresses, its practical use is limited to solving problems under well-defined loading conditions which can be successfully applied on a simulated basis to the model. Further, model analysis does not take into account such conditions as hidden material defects, assembly stresses, residual stresses, inelastic behavior, and other parameters that are contributing factors to the structural integrity of a part or structure. On the other hand, with photoelastic coatings, the stress analysis is conducted on real parts operating under actual service conditions. The coating reveals the true surface strains occurring on a part, since most, if not all, of the contributing stress conditions mentioned above can be taken into account during testing. Photoelastic coatings are easy to apply and, with proper test planning, are very economical to use. Since a visible picture of the stress field is provided over the entire area coated, intelligent application of the technique can save many hours of testing time and provide quick solutions to design or service-failure problems.     

A New Procedure to Measure Near Yield Residual Stresses Using the Deep Hole Drilling Technique

Mechanical strain relief techniques for estimating the magnitude of residual stress work by measuring strains or displacements when part of the component is machined away. The underlying assumption is that such strain or displacement changes result from elastic unloading. Unfortunately, in components containing high levels of residual stress, elastic-plastic unloading may well occur, particularly when the residual stresses are highly triaxial. This paper examines the performance of one mechanical strain relief technique particularly suitable for large section components, the deep hole drilling (DHD) technique. The magnitude of error is calculated for different magnitudes of residual stress and can be substantial for residual stress states close to yield. A modification to the technique is described to allow large magnitudes of residual stress to be measured correctly. The new technique is validated using the case of a quenched cylinder where use of the standard DHD technique leads to unacceptable error. The measured residual stresses using the new technique are compared with the results obtained using the neutron diffraction technique and are shown to be in excellent agreement.