Robust design in aerodynamics using third‐order sensitivity analysis based on discrete adjoint. Application to quasi‐1D flows

In this paper, the second‐order second moment approach, coupled with an adjoint‐based steepest descent algorithm, for the solution of the so‐called robust design problem in aerodynamics is proposed. Because the objective function for the robust design problem comprises first‐order and second‐order sensitivity derivatives with respect to the environmental parameters, the application of a gradient‐based method , which requires the sensitivities of this function with respect to the design variables, calls for the computation of third‐order mixed derivatives. To compute these derivatives with the minimum CPU cost, a combination of the direct differentiation and the discrete adjoint variable method is proposed. This is presented for the first time in the relevant literature and is the most efficient among other possible schemes on condition that the design variables are much more than the environmental ones; this is definitely true in most engineering design problems. The proposed approach was used for the robust design of a duct, assuming a quasi‐1D flow model; the coordinates of the Bézier control points parameterizing the duct shape are used as design variables, whereas the outlet Mach number and the Darcy–Weisbach friction coefficient are used as environmental ones. The extension to 2D and 3D flow problems, after developing the corresponding direct differentiation and adjoint variable methods and software, is straightforward. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A consistent incompressible SPH method for internal flows with fixed and moving boundaries

An improved incompressible smoothed particle hydrodynamics (ISPH) method is presented, which employs first‐order consistent discretization schemes both for the first‐order and second‐order spatial derivatives. A recently introduced wall boundary condition is implemented in the context of ISPH method, which does not rely on using dummy particles and, as a result, can be applied more efficiently and with less computational complexity. To assess the accuracy and computational efficiency of this improved ISPH method, a number of two‐dimensional incompressible laminar internal flow benchmark problems are solved and the results are compared with available analytical solutions and numerical data. It is shown that using smaller smoothing lengths, the proposed method can provide desirable accuracies with relatively less computational cost for two‐dimensional problems. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Computation of unsteady viscous incompressible flows in generalized non‐inertial co‐ordinate system using Godunov‐projection method and overlapping meshes

Time‐dependent incompressible Navier–Stokes equations are formulated in generalized non‐inertial co‐ordinate system and numerically solved by using a modified second‐order Godunov‐projection method on a system of overlapped body‐fitted structured grids. The projection method uses a second‐order fractional step scheme in which the momentum equation is solved to obtain the intermediate velocity field which is then projected on to the space of divergence‐free vector fields. The second‐order Godunov method is applied for numerically approximating the non‐linear convection terms in order to provide a robust discretization for simulating flows at high Reynolds number. In order to obtain the pressure field, the pressure Poisson equation is solved. Overlapping grids are used to discretize the flow domain so that the moving‐boundary problem can be solved economically. Numerical results are then presented to demonstrate the performance of this projection method for a variety of unsteady two‐ and three‐dimensional flow problems formulated in the non‐inertial co‐ordinate systems. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

3-D Aerodynamic Shape Design Using Hessians Based on Incomplete Sensitivities

We investigate the practicability of an optimization algorithm based on the Broyden-Fletcher-Goldfarb-Shanno (BFGS) method for 3D shape design problems, using approximate sensitivities of objective functions, where the contribution of the partial derivatives of the flow state with respect to the control variables is neglected. Therefore, it is worthwhile to investigate how an optimization method based on the Hessian behaves in this context. Indeed, the Hessian should be far from its real value if the gradient approximation is wrong. The optimization methodology is characterized by an unstructured CAD-free framework for shape and mesh deformations, an automatic differentiation of programs for the computation of the gradient of the cost function, and an unstructured flow solver. The redesign of transonic and supersonic wings has been considered and the performance of the BFGS method has been analyzed in comparison with a steepest descent method. Taking into account that a line search is too expensive to be carried out in such problems, a step size proportional to the gradient modulus has been employed for updating the control variables. Numerical results show that the BFGS method does not suffer from the approximation used in the evaluation of sensitivities, and leads to an effective improvement of the efficiency of the optimization methodology. These results can be then considered an a posteriori justification for incomplete sensitivities.     

Comparisons of numerical methods with respect to convectively dominated problems

A series of numerical schemes: first‐order upstream, Lax–Friedrichs; second‐order upstream, central difference, Lax–Wendroff, Beam–Warming, Fromm; third‐order QUICK, QUICKEST and high resolution flux‐corrected transport and total variation diminishing (TVD) methods are compared for one‐dimensional convection–diffusion problems. Numerical results show that the modified TVD Lax–Friedrichs method is the most competent method for convectively dominated problems with a steep spatial gradient of the variables. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

强迫谐振动下连续体结构拓扑优化

应用结构拓扑优化ICM(独立连续映射)方法,对强迫谐振动下结构拓扑优化问题建立了以重量极小为目标,位移幅值为约束的优化模型.位移幅值采用一阶泰勒展式近似,由于拓扑优化中设计变量数目通常很多,对强迫谐振动位移幅值的敏度分析推导了伴随法公式,使得一次敏度分析可以计算出对所有设计变量的偏导数,克服了采用直接法敏度分析中一次只能计算出对一个设计变量的偏导数的不足.算例表明用伴随法分析敏度在结构拓扑优化中可以大幅提高计算效率,ICM方法采用独立于截面及形状参数的拓扑优化设计变量更清晰地反映了拓扑优化的本质.     

Development of a class of multiple time‐stepping schemes for convection–diffusion equations in two dimensions

In this paper we present a class of semi‐discretization finite difference schemes for solving the transient convection–diffusion equation in two dimensions. The distinct feature of these scheme developments is to transform the unsteady convection–diffusion (CD) equation to the inhomogeneous steady convection–diffusion‐reaction (CDR) equation after using different time‐stepping schemes for the time derivative term. For the sake of saving memory, the alternating direction implicit scheme of Peaceman and Rachford is employed so that all calculations can be carried out within the one‐dimensional framework. For the sake of increasing accuracy, the exact solution for the one‐dimensional CDR equation is employed in the development of each scheme. Therefore, the numerical error is attributed primarily to the temporal approximation for the one‐dimensional problem. Development of the proposed time‐stepping schemes is rooted in the Taylor series expansion. All higher‐order time derivatives are replaced with spatial derivatives through use of the model differential equation under investigation. Spatial derivatives with orders higher than two are not taken into account for retaining the linear production term in the convection–diffusion‐reaction differential system. The proposed schemes with second, third and fourth temporal accuracy orders have been theoretically explored by conducting Fourier and dispersion analyses and numerically validated by solving three test problems with analytic solutions. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Boundary element analysis of driven cavity flow for low and moderate Reynolds numbers

A boundary element method for steady two‐dimensional low‐to‐moderate‐Reynolds number flows of incompressible fluids, using primitive variables, is presented. The velocity gradients in the Navier–Stokes equations are evaluated using the alternatives of upwind and central finite difference approximations, and derivatives of finite element shape functions. A direct iterative scheme is used to cope with the non‐linear character of the integral equations. In order to achieve convergence, an underrelaxation technique is employed at relatively high Reynolds numbers. Driven cavity flow in a square domain is considered to validate the proposed method by comparison with other published data. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于显式几何更新算法的地下管道自动形状优化

基于计算力学中的结构优化思想,应用一种新型的显式几何更新算法,自行编制C++程序,实现地下管道形状设计的自动优化。管道内的流体假设为牛顿不可压缩流,并考虑惯性项。优化区域主要为管道竖直方向和水平方向的过渡段。形状优化的设计变量是几何边界的有限元节点坐标,优化目标是实现流体黏性能耗散的最小化。优化过程基于形状梯度,即通过形状敏感度分析来求解目标函数相对于设计变量的偏导数。所使用的显式几何更新算法既可以通过网格清晰描述形状,也可以大范围地自动更新网格。详细介绍了地下管道自动形状优化过程的关键步骤。通过数值算例探讨了不同注入速度、密度和黏度对其最优形状的影响。     

Finite element solution of three‐dimensional turbulent flows applied to mold‐filling problems

This paper presents a finite element solution algorithm for three‐dimensional isothermal turbulent flows for mold‐filling applications. The problems of interest present unusual challenges for both the physical modelling and the solution algorithm. High‐Reynolds number transient turbulent flows with free surfaces have to be computed on complex three‐dimensional geometries. In this work, a segregated algorithm is used to solve the Navier–Stokes, turbulence and front‐tracking equations. The streamline–upwind/Petrov–Galerkin method is used to obtain stable solutions to convection‐dominated problems. Turbulence is modelled using either a one‐equation turbulence model or the κ–ε two‐equation model with wall functions. Turbulence equations are solved for the natural logarithm of the turbulence variables. The change of dependent variables allows for a robust solution algorithm and good predictions even on coarse meshes. This is very important in the case of large three‐dimensional applications for which highly refined meshes result in untreatable large numbers of elements. The position of the flow front in the mold cavity is computed using a level set approach. Finally, equations are integrated in time using an implicit Euler scheme. The methodology presents the robustness and cost effectiveness needed to tackle complex industrial applications. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A fully non‐linear model for three‐dimensional overturning waves over an arbitrary bottom

An accurate three‐dimensional numerical model, applicable to strongly non‐linear waves, is proposed. The model solves fully non‐linear potential flow equations with a free surface using a higher‐order three‐dimensional boundary element method (BEM) and a mixed Eulerian–Lagrangian time updating, based on second‐order explicit Taylor series expansions with adaptive time steps. The model is applicable to non‐linear wave transformations from deep to shallow water over complex bottom topography up to overturning and breaking. Arbitrary waves can be generated in the model, and reflective or absorbing boundary conditions specified on lateral boundaries. In the BEM, boundary geometry and field variables are represented by 16‐node cubic ‘sliding’ quadrilateral elements, providing local inter‐element continuity of the first and second derivatives. Accurate and efficient numerical integrations are developed for these elements. Discretized boundary conditions at intersections (corner/edges) between the free surface or the bottom and lateral boundaries are well‐posed in all cases of mixed boundary conditions. Higher‐order tangential derivatives, required for the time updating, are calculated in a local curvilinear co‐ordinate system, using 25‐node ‘sliding’ fourth‐order quadrilateral elements. Very high accuracy is achieved in the model for mass and energy conservation. No smoothing of the solution is required, but regridding to a higher resolution can be specified at any time over selected areas of the free surface. Applications are presented for the propagation of numerically exact solitary waves. Model properties of accuracy and convergence with a refined spatio‐temporal discretization are assessed by propagating such a wave over constant depth. The shoaling of solitary waves up to overturning is then calculated over a 1:15 plane slope, and results show good agreement with a two‐dimensional solution proposed earlier. Finally, three‐dimensional overturning waves are generated over a 1:15 sloping bottom having a ridge in the middle, thus focusing wave energy. The node regridding method is used to refine the discretization around the overturning wave. Convergence of the solution with grid size is also verified for this case. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

热结构稳态响应的耦合灵敏度分析方法

研究结构稳态热变形和热应力的灵敏度分析方法，给出了直接法和伴随法两种算法。考虑了温度场的耦合作用，在直接法中需要计算温度场对设计变量的导数，在伴随法中需要计算热载荷对温度场的导数。对尺寸和形状两类设计变量的灵敏度分析算例，验证了本文方法的精度。伴随法在应用程序中的实现，为大型结构优化提供了高效率的灵敏度计算方法。     

Comparison of derivative free Newton‐based and evolutionary methods for shape optimization of flow problems

The object of this study is to investigate two derivative free optimization techniques, i.e. Newton‐based method and an evolutionary method for shape optimization of flow geometry problems. The approaches are compared quantitatively with respect to efficiency and quality by using the minimization of the pressure drop of a pipe conjunction which can be considered as a representative test case for a practical three‐dimensional flow configuration. The comparison is performed by using CONDOR representing derivative free Newton‐based techniques and SIMPLIFIED NSGA‐II as the representative of evolutionary methods (EM). For the shape variation the computational grid employed by the flow solver is deformed. To do this, the displacement fields are scaled by design variables and added to the initial grid configuration. The displacement vectors are calculated once before the optimization procedure by means of a free form deformation (FFD) technique. The simulation tool employed is a parallel multi‐grid flow solver, which uses a fully conservative finite‐volume method for the solution of the incompressible Navier–Stokes equations on a non‐staggered, cell‐centred grid arrangement. For the coupling of pressure and velocity a pressure‐correction approach of SIMPLE type is used. The possibility of parallel computing and a multi‐grid technique allow for a high numerical efficiency. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Two forms of continuum shape sensitivity method for fluid–structure interaction problems

Continuum Sensitivity Equation (CSE) methods for deriving and computing derivatives with respect to shape design variables are developed in two forms and compared in their application to fluid–structure interaction (FSI) problems. The local derivative form poses the CSEs in terms of the partial derivatives of the state variables with respect to shape parameters, while the CSEs in total derivative form are posed in terms of the total derivative, also known as the material or substantial derivative. In the literature CSEs are often posed in local form for fluids and total form for solids. The two forms are compared here for the purpose of applying a single form to both fluid and structure domains. The local form, also known as the boundary velocity method, requires design velocity only at the boundaries and interfaces of the domains to pose the CSEs. In contrast, the total form, also known as the domain velocity method, requires the design velocity in the whole domain. The local form requires higher-order spatial derivatives of the analysis solution than the total form, which affects the accuracy of its results. Higher order p-elements are shown to be a remedy to the inaccuracy of local form CSE seen in the literature for finite element solutions. The practicality, accuracy, and efficiency of these two CSE forms are compared based on the implementation and computed derivatives for three examples: a linear Timoshenko beam subject to a tip force, fluid flow around an airfoil, and an airfoil attached to a nonlinear joined beam subject to a gust load.     

Numerical simulation of bubble and droplet deformation by a level set approach with surface tension in three dimensions

In this paper we present a three‐dimensional Navier–Stokes solver for incompressible two‐phase flow problems with surface tension and apply the proposed scheme to the simulation of bubble and droplet deformation. One of the main concerns of this study is the impact of surface tension and its discretization on the overall convergence behavior and conservation properties. Our approach employs a standard finite difference/finite volume discretization on uniform Cartesian staggered grids and uses Chorin's projection approach. The free surface between the two fluid phases is tracked with a level set (LS) technique. Here, the interface conditions are implicitly incorporated into the momentum equations by the continuum surface force method. Surface tension is evaluated using a smoothed delta function and a third‐order interpolation. The problem of mass conservation for the two phases is treated by a reinitialization of the LS function employing a regularized signum function and a global fixed point iteration. All convective terms are discretized by a WENO scheme of fifth order. Altogether, our approach exhibits a second‐order convergence away from the free surface. The discretization of surface tension requires a smoothing scheme near the free surface, which leads to a first‐order convergence in the smoothing region. We discuss the details of the proposed numerical scheme and present the results of several numerical experiments concerning mass conservation, convergence of curvature, and the application of our solver to the simulation of two rising bubble problems, one with small and one with large jumps in material parameters, and the simulation of a droplet deformation due to a shear flow in three space dimensions. Furthermore, we compare our three‐dimensional results with those of quasi‐two‐dimensional and two‐dimensional simulations. This comparison clearly shows the need for full three‐dimensional simulations of droplet and bubble deformation to capture the correct physical behavior. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An explicit level set approach for generalized shape optimization of fluids with the lattice Boltzmann method

This study is concerned with a generalized shape optimization approach for finding the geometry of fluidic devices and obstacles immersed in flows. Our approach is based on a level set representation of the fluid–solid interface and a hydrodynamic lattice Boltzmann method to predict the flow field. We present an explicit level set method that does not involve the solution of the Hamilton–Jacobi equation and allows using standard nonlinear programming methods. In contrast to previous works, the boundary conditions along the fluid–structure interface are enforced by second‐order accurate interpolation schemes, overcoming shortcomings of flow penalization methods and Brinkman formulations frequently used in topology optimization. To ensure smooth boundaries and mesh‐independent results, we introduce a simple, computationally inexpensive filtering method to regularize the level set field. Furthermore, we define box constraints for the design variables that guarantee a continuous evolution of the boundaries. The features of the proposed method are studied by two numeric examples of two‐dimensional steady‐state flow problems. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

最优目标敏度紧系的桁架几何两步优化方法

对于桁架几何优化问题，采用由最优敏度紧系的序列两步优化解法：在完成截面优化之后，求出其最优目标对节点坐标变量的一、二阶导数，以此构造形状优化模型，对较难建模和求解的第二步问题建立了近似显式并能用二次规划有效地求解，取得了满意的结果．     

The improvement of numerical modeling in the solution of incompressible viscous flow problems using finite element method based on spherical Hankel shape functions

In this paper, the finite element method with new spherical Hankel shape functions is developed for simulating 2‐dimensional incompressible viscous fluid problems. In order to approximate the hydrodynamic variables, the finite element method based on new shape functions is reformulated. The governing equations are the Navier‐Stokes equations solved by the finite element method with the classic Lagrange and spherical Hankel shape functions. The new shape functions are derived using the first and second kinds of Bessel functions. In addition, these functions have properties such as piecewise continuity. For the enrichment of Hankel radial basis functions, polynomial terms are added to the functional expansion that only employs spherical Hankel radial basis functions in the approximation. In addition, the participation of spherical Bessel function fields has enhanced the robustness and efficiency of the interpolation. To demonstrate the efficiency and accuracy of these shape functions, 4 benchmark tests in fluid mechanics are considered. Then, the present model results are compared with the classic finite element results and available analytical and numerical solutions. The results show that the proposed method, even with less number of elements, is more accurate than the classic finite element method.     

Accuracy Analysis of the Semi-Analytical Method for Shape Sensitivity Calculation∗

ABSTRACT

The semi-analytical method of design sensitivity analysis that is widely used for calculating derivatives of static response with respect to design variables for structures modeled by finite elements is studied in this paper. It is shown that the method can have serious accuracy problems for shape design variables in structures modeled by beam, plate, truss, frame, and solid elements. Errors are shown to be associated with an incompatibility of the sensitivity field with the structure. An error index is developed to test the accuracy of the semi-analytical method. It characterizes the difference in errors between a general finite difference method and the semi-analytical method. A method for improving the accuracy of the semi-analytical method (when possible) is provided. Examples are presented to demonstrate the use of the error index.     

两类变量综合处理的结构形状优化设计方法

本文针对截面变量为离散变量为连续变量的结构优化问题提出了一种优化设计的方法,首先将单元内力作一阶近似,利用凝聚函数多约束问题转化了单约束问题。在解过程中,把定义在连续区间上的形状变量看成是在一些离散以值的离工用变量,然后将两类变量统一考虑并利用相对差商法求解。将该算法应用于几个经典的结构优化算例,运算结果显示了该方法是可行的,优化结果也比较满意。