Apparent Permeability and Gas Flow Behavior in Carboniferous Shale from the Qaidam Basin,China: An Experimental Study

Shale can act as an unconventional gas reservoir with low permeability and complex seepage characteristics. Study of the apparent permeability and percolation behavior of shale gas is important in understanding the permeability of shale reservoirs, to evaluate formation damage, to develop gas reservoirs, and to design wells. This study simulated methane percolation at 298.15 K under inlet pressures ranging from 0.2 to 4 MPa and a constant outlet pressure of 0.1 MPa to investigate shale gas percolation behavior and apparent permeability. Five representative shale cores from the Carboniferous Hurleg and Huitoutala formations in the eastern Qaidam Basin, China, were analyzed. Each experiment measured the volume flow rate of methane and the inlet pressure. Pseudopressure approach was used to analyze high-velocity flow in shale samples, and apparent permeability at different pressures was calculated using the traditional method. A nonlinear apparent permeability model that considers diffusion and slippage is established from theory and experimental data fitting, and the shale gas flow characteristics affected by slippage and diffusion are analyzed. The results indicate that the pseudopressure formulation that considers the effect of gas properties on high-velocity flow produces a more accurate linear representation of the experimental data. The apparent gas permeability of shale consists of contributions from Darcy permeability, slippage, and diffusion. The apparent permeability and gas flow behavior in the studied shales strongly depended on pressure. The diffusion contribution increased greatly as pressure decreased from 2 to 0.2 MPa, and the smaller the shale permeability, the greater the relative contribution of diffusion flow. At pressures greater than 2 MPa, slip flow contributes \(\sim \)20% of the total flux, Darcy flow contributes up to 70%, and diffusion makes only a minor contribution. This study provides useful information for future studies of the mechanism of shale gas percolation and the exploration and development of Qaidam Basin shale gas specifically.     

Experimental Measurements of Stress and Chemical Controls on the Evolution of Fracture Permeability

We explore how fracture permeability in confined tight carbonates evolves due to flow of reactive fluids. Core plugs of the Capitan Massive Limestone are saw-cut to form a smooth axial fracture that is subsequently roughened to control the fracture surface topography. Either distilled water or distilled water–ammonium chloride solutions are circulated through these plugs, where fracture roughness, inlet fluid pH, and confining stresses are controlled. Throughout the experiment we measure the fluid flow rate and chemical composition of the effluent fluid. Mass balance, conducted on the effluent fluid mass and on dissolved mineral components, independently constrains the mineral mass removal. We use an idealized lumped parameter model of asperity supported fractures undergoing simultaneous stress corrosion cracking-induced diffusion and free-face dissolution to infer theoretical rates of aperture loss or gain. This model incorporates the roles of confining stress, fracture contact area, and composition and reactivity of the permeating fluid while identifying zones of diffusion-dominated mass transfer within the fracture. These theoretical rates of aperture strain are compared to those inferred from the experimentally determined permeability evolution and permeating fluid mineral mass balance. By measuring in regimes of both increasing and decreasing permeability we quantitatively constrain the transition between fracture-gaping and fracture-closing modes of behavior. We parameterize this transition in permeability evolution by the ratio of mechanically to chemically controlled dissolved mass fluxes. The transition from regimes of closing to regimes of gaping occurs at unity ( $\chi \approx 1$ ) when stress and chemically driven mass fluxes are theoretically equal.     

大理岩动态劈裂拉伸断裂的实验研究

利用直径为100mm的Hopkinson压杆和薄圆形铝片作为波形整形器,用不同弹速径向冲击大理岩平台巴西圆盘来研究其动态拉伸强度.考虑了试样的尺寸大小及两个平台附近应力的时间不均匀性与空间不均匀性对实验结果的影响.分析了试样的最大应变率、破坏时间、破坏模式以及破坏过程中的载荷应变关系,得到了关于大理岩在高应变率下拉伸强度及弹性模量的一些结论.进一步又利用该装置径向冲击人字形切槽巴西圆盘试样,对试样的起裂时间进行了初步的研究,以便今后测试动态断裂韧度.     

注水井地层吸水规律实验研究

注水开发是油田开发的第一选择。本文通过试验着重分析了指示曲线方法在注水开发过程中的失效原因,总结出水嘴总压损失随流量变化规律。同时,考虑真实油藏下任意井网排布,推导了注水层井底压力与流量随时间变化的关系,提出了瞬时指示曲线分析方法指导流量调配,既满足了油田注水的基本要求又把注水成本控制在合理的范围内。现场试验结果表明,该方法准确、简单、可靠,很好地满足了工程实际的需要,减轻了调配人员的工作强度和工作时间。     

A Numerical Study of Microscale Flow Behavior in Tight Gas and Shale Gas Reservoir Systems

Various attempts have been made to model flow in shale gas systems. However, there is currently little consensus regarding the impact of molecular and Knudsen diffusion on flow behavior over time in such systems. Direct measurement or model-based estimation of matrix permeability for these “ultra-tight” reservoirs has proven unreliable. The composition of gas produced from tight gas and shale gas reservoirs varies with time for a variety of reasons. The cause of flowing gas compositional change typically cited is selective desorption of gases from the surface of the kerogen in the case of shale. However, other drivers for gas fractionation are important when pore throat dimensions are small enough. Pore throat diameters on the order of molecular mean free path lengths will create non-Darcy flow conditions, where permeability becomes a strong function of pressure. At the low permeabilities found in shale gas systems, the dusty-gas model for flow should be used, which couples diffusion to advective flow. In this study we implement the dusty-gas model into a fluid flow modeling tool based on the TOUGH+ family of codes. We examine the effects of Knudsen diffusion on gas composition in ultra-tight rock. We show that for very small average pore throat diameters, lighter gases are preferentially produced at concentrations significantly higher than in situ conditions. Furthermore, we illustrate a methodology which uses measurements of gas composition to more uniquely determine the permeability of tight reservoirs. We also describe how gas composition measurement could be used to identify flow boundaries in these reservoir systems. We discuss how new measurement techniques and data collection practices should be implemented in order to take advantage of this method. Our contributions include a new, fit-for-purpose numerical model based on the TOUGH+ code capable of characterizing transport effects including permeability adjustment and diffusion in micro- and nano-scale porous media.     

卸压开采损伤煤岩气体渗透率试验研究

我国煤系地层的煤岩体渗透率普遍较低,直接影响煤矿瓦斯抽采效果。卸压开采使采场围岩受采动应力作用具备了峰后力学行为,其渗透率也大幅度增加,有助于瓦斯的高效抽采。本文基于MTS815.02型电液伺服岩石渗透试验系统,对卸压开采后损伤煤岩的气体渗透率进行了测试。研究表明:(1)卸压损伤煤岩石的渗透率在10-5～10-4 m2之间,较受采动影响前要大107～108倍;(2)卸压过程中,煤样的气体渗透率与围压近似呈线性关系,与岩样呈双曲线关系;(3)卸压损伤煤岩逐渐加围压,气体渗透率近似为线性下降,卸压阶段,其渗透率增加;(4)加卸围压对煤岩的气体渗透率有很大影响。研究结果可为卸压瓦斯高效抽采提供理论依据。     

Experimental Study into Droplet Formation in Steam Flows

Progress in the development of the steam turbines bring about a renewal of interest in wetness associated problems. Consequently, the present study investigates the droplet formation in low pressure steam flows. An experiment is conducted to measure the pressure ratio and size of the droplets developing in the divergent section of the convergent-divergent nozzle. The results obtained from the present study are compared with the existing data in the literature. It is found that the high rate of expansion results in large droplet size, which increases slightly as the stagnation pressure increases. In addition, the results obtained from the present analysis are in good agreement with the results of the previous study.     

超临界CO2在低渗透煤层中渗流规律的实验研究

利用自主研发的THM三场耦合渗流实验系统,进行不同孔隙压力和温度条件下的超临界CO2在低渗透煤层中的渗流实验,得出不同温度下流速和压力梯度之间的关系,从而得到了低渗透煤层注入超临界CO2的非达西渗流规律,即流速与压力梯度变化规律呈现正指数关系.随着压力梯度的增大,渗透系数也不断的增大,且呈现正指数关系;在同一体积应力和压力梯度的条件下,温度越高,流速越快;温度在临界点附近,流速和渗透系数增加很快.     

断层内破碎岩石渗透性的实验研究

断层破碎带岩石的渗透性是影响地下工程中由渗流失稳而引发灾害事故的重要影响因素之一。利用一种专门的破碎岩石压实渗透仪,在MTS815.02岩石力学伺服试验系统上测试了取自断层内的破碎灰岩、破碎砂岩、破碎泥岩的渗透系数,得到并分析了轴向压力、岩样粒径、水流速度与渗透系数的关系曲线。研究表明:破碎岩石渗透系数与其压实状态密切相关,随着轴压的增加,渗透系数都相应降低;在相同的轴向压力状态下,岩样粒径越小,其渗透系数也越小,因此,挤压程度和充填程度都较低的小断层导水性好,容易导致突水;破碎岩石的渗透系数随着水流速度的增大呈减小趋势,但水流速度对破碎岩石渗透系数的影响程度有限;在相同的压力、粒径情况下,破碎泥岩的渗透系数比破碎灰岩、破碎砂岩的要小1～2个量级,说明当断层上下盘为坚硬岩石时,断层带渗透性好、易导水。研究结果可为采动过程中评价断层的导水性提供参考。     

瓷修复体界面断裂行为的模拟实验研究

本文利用云纹干涉法和云纹干涉－－有限元混合法，对瓷修复体的模拟双材料模型界面断裂问题进行了实验研究。用云纹干涉和数字错位云纹干涉法测量带边裂纹的双材料四点简支梁在剪切作用下界面表面的剪应变分布及界面两侧局部表面的位移场，实验表明，由于界面两两侧材料力学性质不同，表现出界面剪切断裂问题的非称性和裂尖附近复合型断裂的特点；用云纹干涉法和有限元法相结合的混合法对粘接界面角点应力奇异性进行研究，并对角点附近应力应变场作了分析，得到了应力奇异指数与边界楔角，载荷的关系，证明了用界面应力强度因子Kf来描述界面端部区域应力分布的公式，并得到了双材料界面端部区域的应力应变分布情况。本文的实验结果为进一步研究口腔金瓷修复体界面的优化设计提供了基础，同时也说明云纹干涉法对于双材料界面断裂行为的研究是有效的。     

单裂隙流-固耦合渗流的试验研究

通过对较大尺寸的单裂隙岩体试块进行不同侧面加载的渗流试验,在实验室里开展了单裂隙流 固耦合渗流研究,模拟核废料贮藏库的围岩自由面的最危险部位的渗流量 应力耦合状态。分析了裂隙岩体渗流与应力的耦合机理,获得了几种典型情况下的试验数据,并拟合出不同应力条件下单裂隙岩体渗流量与应力间数学经验公式。从而说明并非任一方向的应力增加都能使渗流量减小,而是裂隙岩体的渗流量随着双向压应力的增加而减少,随着平行于裂隙面方向的单向压应力的增加而增加。缝隙开度虽然随着法向应力的增加而逐渐减小,但最终不可能完全闭合,所以,此时流量不可能为零。同时,在试验过程中还通过闭环控制来实现被加载面的均匀受力,这为大尺寸岩体试验提供了一种很好的加载方法。     

中心直裂纹平台巴西圆盘复合型动态断裂实验研究

制作了中心直裂纹平台巴西圆盘（cracked straight through flattened Brazilian disc-CSTFBD）试样,利用分离式霍普金森压杆（split Hopkinson pressure bar-SHPB）加载,进行了岩石纯Ⅰ型和复合型（Ⅰ＋Ⅱ型）动态断裂实验。由于加载角（载荷方向与裂纹线的夹角）在制作试样时已经通过裂纹线与试样平台的位置关系确定,因此在实验中可以方便而准确地实施加栽。比较了纯Ⅰ型加载和复合型加载下压杆上记录的入射波、反射波和透射波的波形。采用实验与数值相结合的方法,将实验得到的动态载荷输入有限元程序,得到了纯Ⅰ型试样的动态断裂韧度和复合型试样的两种动态应力强度因子的时间历程。计算了加载角为15°的试样应力强度因子的复合比（KI（t）／KⅡ（t））,此计算值与文献结果吻合较好,验证了实验方法的有效性。     

Manuscripts Accepted for Publication in Volume 8 (2004)

Nonlinear Dynamics, Psychology, and Life Sciences -     

固体炸药损伤破坏实验研究

利用显微观察和数字图像相关处理,对一种固体炸药材料的损伤破坏行为进行了研究,获得了带预制裂纹试件在裂纹尖端附近区域的位移分布,以及微裂纹的诱发和发展历程.断裂过程的结果表明,裂尖的位移分布与裂纹的受载形式有关,而最终断裂的裂纹破坏路径总是趋向于加载方向.通过扫描电镜下的实验观察,发现造型粉颗粒的界面脱落是炸药损伤的主要因素,它的发展会导致微裂纹的产生和发展.     

Influence of Fracture Connectivity and Characterization Level on the Uncertainty of the Equivalent Permeability in Statistically Conceptualized Fracture Networks

A statistically conceptualized fracture network is generally used in modeling flow and transport in the discrete fracture network (DFN) approach. To quantify the influence of the fracture connectivity and characterization level on the uncertainty from a statistical conceptualization of fractures, the ensemble mean and variability of the equivalent permeability for stochastically generated fracture networks is analyzed with various percolation parameters (p) for different structures following power law size distributions. The results of Monte Carlo analyses show that statistics of a fracture network can be used to estimate its hydraulic properties with an acceptable level of uncertainty when p is greater than the specific percolation parameter (p _s) where the domain size is expected to become equal to the correlation length of a given fracture network. However, when p is smaller than the p _s, the uncertainty of the hydraulic properties induced from statistical characteristics of fractures is large, thus statistical conceptualization is not recommended. Conditional simulations support them: although we have deterministic information on a significant amount of fractures in the domain, a small number of stochastically generated fractures still produce significant uncertainty in the estimated system properties when p is smaller than p _s. These results suggest that the p _s and correlation length of a fracture network can be criteria to evaluate the applicability of the statistical conceptualization for modeling flow in a given fractured rock.     

超临界CO_2作用后煤微观结构与渗透率变化规律实验研究

在宏观超临界CO_2增透实验基础上进行微观成像实验,提取煤微观孔隙特征,自编Matlab程序,计算孔隙率,得到煤各微区孔隙率和渗透率矩阵,绘制孔隙率和渗透率等值线图。结果表明:增透实验前后煤微观结构差别显著,经超临界CO_2作用后,煤微观孔隙充分发育,孔隙的数量、尺寸明显增加,孔隙率是增透前的9.11倍;随着孔隙压力的增大,煤中粒间孔隙数量增多,孔隙之间的连通性增加,孔隙率呈指数增大的趋势,煤体各微区孔隙率等值线密集程度增加;煤体的渗透率随着孔隙率的增加呈正指数递增的趋势,且随着孔隙压力的增加,渗透率呈指数递增的变化规律,渗透率等值线的密集程度增加,宏微观实验结果是一致的,随着注入超临界CO_2孔隙压力的增加,煤微观孔隙结构的发育程度提高,为煤层气的运移提供更多的通道,有效提高了煤体的渗透性。     

Experimental Study of Bacterial Penetration into Chalk Rock: Mechanisms and Effect on Permeability

Bacterial selective plugging is one of the mechanisms through which microorganisms can be applied for enhanced oil recovery, as bacteria can plug the water-swept zones of a reservoir, thus altering the flow paths and improving sweep efficiency. However, complete understanding of the penetration behavior of bacteria is lacking, especially in chalk formations where characteristic pore throat sizes are comparable with the sizes of bacterial cells. In this study, two bacterial strains, Bacillus licheniformis 421 (spore-forming) and Pseudomonas putida K12 (non-spore forming) were used to investigate the penetration of bacteria into chalk and its effect on permeability reduction. The core plugs were produced from Stevns Klint outcrop with low permeability (2–4 mD) and with pore sizes comparable to bacterial sizes. Both types of bacteria were able to penetrate and to be transported through the cores to some extent. A significantly higher number of B. licheniformis 421 was detected in the effluents as compared to P. putida K12. It was demonstrated that the spore-forming B. licheniformis 421 penetrates in the form of spores. P. putida K12 is found to penetrate the core, however, in smaller numbers compared to B. licheniformis. It was shown that both bacteria, under different injection concentrations, were capable of plugging the porous rock, as indicated by reduction of the core permeability. An incubation period of 12 days did not allow the permeability to return to initial condition. Based on the results it can be concluded that, when injected into chalk, spore forming bacteria have higher chance to survive and penetrate into deeper formation; and both types of bacteria may cause permeability reduction.