A Measuring System for Bulk and Shear Characterization of Polymers

This paper describes a novel measuring system for investigating the influence of pressure and temperature on the mechanical properties of time-dependent polymer materials. The system can measure the volume and the shear relaxation moduli of solid polymer specimens simultaneously subjected to temperatures from −50 to +120°C with a precision of ±0.01°C, and pressures from atmospheric to 500 MPa with a precision of ±0.1 MPa. The paper demonstrates the measuring capabilities of the apparatus. For poly(vinyl) acetate (PVAc) are presented sample measurements of the shear relaxation modulus as function of time, pressure and temperature; specific volume; the bulk creep compliance; the coefficient of thermal expansion; the bulk modulus; and the pressure drop experiments which simulate conditions to which a material is exposed during the injection molding process. The shear moduli may be measured in the range from 1 to 4,000 MPa with the relative error of 3%.The error of volumetric measurements is 0.05%, which corresponds to 0.00005 cm³/g. In all cases results are shown as measured, no additional smoothing or filtering was employed. This paper is dedicated to Professor Nicholas W. Tschoegl on the occasion of his 87th birthday, for his contributions to the field of time-dependent bulk properties of polymeric materials.     

Backscatter factor and absorption ratio of fibrous zirconia media in the visible

Fibrous thermal insulations are widely used to conserve energy in ambient to high temperature applications including buildings, solar collectors, heat exchangers, furnaces and thermal protection systems of reusable launch vehicles. It has long been recognised that zirconia has the lowest thermal conductivity of commercial refractories. The thermal conductivity of a zirconia fibrous medium is strongly dependent of its bulk density; high bulk densities of zirconia fibers provide the most effective insulation at high temperatures. Lee's theory for radiative transfer through fibrous media is used in this paper. The two-flux model is applied to determine the backward and forward parameters of a medium of zirconia fibers oriented in parallel planes. Theoretical calculations of the backscatter factor and absorption ratio of this medium are carried out in the visible spectrum for different size parameters of the fibers and for three different temperatures. Our results show that the backscatter factor of zirconia fibrous insulations is maximum, and therefore the heat transfer by the fibrous medium is the lowest, for a size parameter of 0.45 for all the temperatures studied. We also observed that the backscatter factor decreases with increasing temperature.     

高超声速飞行器大面积热防护系统的传热数值分析

隔热毡是高超声速飞行器防热系统中重要的组成部分。隔热毡内存在复杂的多种传热形式的耦合,本文详细地分析了隔热结构内导热与辐射的复合换热问题,用光学厚极限法分析了隔热层纤维席内辐射热流。建立了高温绝热毡有效热导率的数值计算模型,分析了温度和压力对传热机制的影响。该模型预测的有效导热系数与试验结果最大误差不超过6%。通过应用数值分析方法得到有效导热系数,建立了防热结构一维瞬态传热模型,该模型结果与瞬态实验结果最大误差为8%。最后还计算出不同厚度隔热毡蒙皮结构的温度响应,并分析讨论了隔热毡厚度对隔热效果的影响。本文研究表明:TPS隔热毡的厚度达到63.3mm后,继续增加尺寸,其隔热效率将明显降低。     

A Comparison of Residual-stress Measurements Using Blind-hole, Abrasive-jet and Trepan-ring Methods

This article describes the results of residual-stress measurements which were made on an artillery-projectile metal part to determine whether the state of the stress could be a factor in promoting a failure that had occurred during ballistic test firing. An additional objective of the work was to evaluate the suitability of several different methods for measuring residual stresses by the performance of these measurements on the same metal part.     

On the use of filtered Rayleigh scattering for measurements in compressible flows and thermal fields

This work describes applications of filtered Rayleigh scattering to measure thermodynamic properties in compressible unseeded flows and thermal fields. Methodologies for measuring single and multiple properties in four flows are demonstrated including methods to calibrate the system parameters. Temperature, pressure, and velocity were measured simultaneously in a free jet and a laser-induced energy deposition experiment. Additionally, single-property temperature measurements were acquired in the energy deposition and a natural convection experiment. Modifications to the technique are discussed to simplify calibration and avoid double-valued solutions when performing temperature measurements. The uncertainty of the technique is also discussed and evaluated.     

Measurement of force to excavate extraterrestrial regolith with a small bucket-wheel device

The plans for NASA missions to the moon and mars require excavation of regolith (soil) especially to realize the benefits of in situ resource utilization. Micro-scale excavators might be good candidates for these missions since they will significantly reduce launch mass. Even though the excavator might be small, it still has to be capable, reliable, and power efficient. This paper reports on research to measure the amount of force such a small excavator must generate to be effective. Previous research indicates a bucket-wheel excavator is a good candidate excavator tool; so, we developed a laboratory-scale apparatus to measure the horizontal and vertical forces and power required to excavate simulated regolith with a micro-scale bucket wheel. This paper describes the apparatus and presents the results of measurements along with a comparison with modeled forces, concluding that micro-excavators are feasible candidates for ISRU work.     

A null instrument for accurate measurement of small a.c. currents

Summary An apparatus and a method are described that are based on a.c. null balance, which may be used for measuring 50 Hz currents of 2 × 10⁻¹¹ A, or higher, with an accuracy of 0.1 per cent. The apparatus, which has been applied in experiments of different kind in our laboratory, is fed by a.c. line voltage. The main part is an a.c. amplifier with 30 MΩ input impedance, provided with a variable phase-shift. The amplifier is essentially, followed by a synchronous meter and is connected to a stabilized and calibrated 50 Hz reference source. The design, adjustment and performance of the apparatus are treated in §§ 1–3. Also the use of a linear rectifying meter instead of a synchronous meter, in direct-reading measurements, is discussed with respect to the signal-to-noise ratio. In § 4 the application of the described a.c. null balance method to photometry will be reviewed, with special regard to the attainable accuracy.     

Measurement of creep in rotating viscoelastic disks

This paper describes experimental efforts to measure the time-dependent radial deformations of rotating disks. Although these experiments were concerned with viscoelastic disks, the technique is not limited to this class of materials. The technique is based on the use of an electro-optical displacement follower which tracks the displacement of painted targets on the specimen disk. Associated electronic-compensation circuitry for cancelling the effects of changes in rigid-body motions is also described. The experimental apparatus and developmental problems are discussed and creep measurements are compared with predictions from the technical theory of linear viscoelasticity.     

A forced-vibration technique for measurement of material damping

This article describes a technique for measuring material damping in specimens under forced flexural vibration. Although the method was developed for testing fiber-reinforced composite materials, it could be used for any structural material. The test specimen is a double-cantilever beam clamped at its midpoint and excited in resonant flexural vibration by an electromagnetic shaker. Under steady state conditions, material damping is defined in terms of the ratio of input energy to strain energy stored in the specimen. If external losses are negligible, the input energy must equal the energy dissipated in the specimen. Input energy and strain energy are found from measured specimen dimensions, resonant frequency, input acceleration and bending strain. Problems associated with minimization of external energy losses in the apparatus and verification of measurements are discussed in detail. Measured damping of aluminum-alloy calibration specimens shows good agreement with calculated thermoelastic damping. Examples of measured damping showing amplitude and frequency dependence in fiber-reinforced plastic materials are presented.     

便携式人体皮肤摩擦性能测试仪的研制

随着对人体皮肤摩擦学特性研究的展开,目前还没有适用的设备对脸颊?额头等不规则形状部位进行测试,本文研制了一种便携式的摩擦性能测试仪,并在不损害皮肤情况下进行人体皮肤摩擦性能测试,结果表明:该测试仪使用方便?性能可靠.在0.2 2N 的接触正压力和10 60nml/S 的滑行速度范围内,皮肤摩擦系数与施加的接触正压力及滑行速度无关.自然状态下,手背?手掌?前臂屈侧?前臂伸侧?前额部位皮肤摩擦系数在性别间的差距较小,但脸颊部位皮肤摩擦系数女性却远大于男性.护肤品处理后,各测试部位皮肤摩擦系数在性别间的差距都有所缩小.     

A large-scale matched index of refraction flow facility for LDA studies around complex geometries

Useage of laser-Doppler anemometry (LDA) requires optical access to the flow field of interest. This has not always proved easy, as in the case of complex geometries or very near-wall boundary layer measurements. One solution is to employ a solid material and fluid with the same refractive index. In this case, there is no optical interference of the solid with the LDA. Although this technique is not new, previous studies have been limited to small flow apparatus and relatively unpleasant fluids. A large-scale flow tunnel has now been constructed, permitting matched index of refraction LDA measurements in difficult geometries, higher Reynolds numbers, and increased spatial resolution in the measurements. This paper describes the facility and fluid flow quality, and presents some preliminary results for very near-wall measurements of a transitional boundary layer behind a roughness element. Received: 13 March 2000/Accepted: 30 July 2000     

A New Multiaxial Specimen for Determining the Dynamic Properties of Adhesive Joints

Adhesive joints are increasingly employed for bonding critical parts of industrial structures. Therefore, adhesive joints become a key element in design, and their mechanical characterization is of the utmost importance. Significant advancement has been realized for their characterization under quasi-static loadings; however characterization techniques are rather limited for dynamic loadings. Indeed, due to the complex paths of waves through structures, existing dynamic characterization techniques will not characterize only the adhesive joint, but instead will characterize the complete assembly containing the joint and the adherents. Moreover, multiaxiality control of the loading on the adhesive joint is difficult to achieve. This paper proposes an innovative experimental technique for the characterization of adhesive joints under dynamic multiaxial loadings. The experimental method relies on three main components: i) a conventional split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) apparatus, ii) a novel specimen, denoted as DODECA, which enables testing of three distinct multiaxial loadings using the same method and iii) local strain and stress measurements performed by digital image correlation (DIC). The paper describes all steps of the experimental procedure, including the underlying preparation of the specimen and the measuring methods. The stress and strain in the adhesive joint are estimated directly from the experimental data both during loading and at the failure point. Finally, the dynamic material behavior of the adhesive joint is identified from the data.     

Strain measurements on hydrostatically stressed materials using differential-transformer transducers

An apparatus for directly measuring orthogonal strains of hydrostatically stressed polymeric materials is described. The compliance of the principal dimensions of regular-shaped specimens permits calculation of bulk compliance, bulk modulus, and anisotropy that may exist in the material. The application of differential transformers to hydrostatic strain measurements is discussed.     

Measurement of thermal stresses within an experimental nuclear-reactor vessel head

This paper describes certain tests and techniques employed in measuring stresses within an experimental nuclear-reactor head of unusual design. The incorporation of certain desired design features necessitated that the head be extremely thick. Due to the thickness and its complex geometry, it was considered desirable to determine stress distribution within the head under conditions of steady-state pressure combined with rapid heating and cooling transients within the reactor, in order to determine safe limits for the operation of the head. A photoelastic study of a three-dimensional model of the reactor head was completed in 1956; this study permitted prediction of the stress distribution throughout the head as a function of internal pressure, but it was not possible to assimilate the head thermal stresses by photoelastic means. It is the purpose of this paper to describe the technique employed in measuring thermal stresses in the interior of the head, under simulated operating conditions of steady-state pressure and temperature transients.     

Measurements of the thermal conductivity of gases and gas mixtures,methods and results

Two methods for measuring the thermal conductivity have been employed:

1. a cylindrical cell type of apparatus for absolute measurements, with an accuracy of 0.5%.
2. a thermistor katharometer bridge for differential measurements, allowing an accuracy of 0.1%. The thermistor bridge is described in some detail and its performance is analysed.

Results are presented for a number of pure gases and binary mixtures. A special study was made of mixtures with water vapour or heavy water vapour as a component. Measurements were performed at room temperature and 333 K. In general our results compare well with those of other investigators, although differences are noted that surpass the degree of accuracy we believe to hold for our values. For a number of the binary mixtures investigated no results have -to our knowledge-been reported previously. The results for six of the binary mixtures containing water as a component are represented by a Wassiljewa-type formula. No agreement was obtained with values calculated from four different theories based on this formula.     

液体环二次破碎所形成云雾颗粒尺寸测量和测试系统的标定

介绍了激光散射法测量颗粒尺寸系统的工作原理和标定结果,并对液体环轴对称抛撒进行了光学测量。实验结果表明,液体环二次破碎产生云雾区的液滴Ｓａｕｔｅｒ平均直径在固定点随时间的增加呈减小的趋势,而云雾区的宽度和云雾区前缘的液滴颗粒的Ｓａｕｔｅｒ平均直径则随测量的距离增加均有所增加。     

LDV Measurements of the Response of the Swirling Turbulent Flow in a Pipe to a Rapid Temporal Change in Swirl

The present paper describes an experiment to study the response of the swirling flow in a pipe at a high Reynolds number to a rapid temporal change in swirl. The measurements have been conducted with 3D-LDV in a facility of special design that operates on the principle of refractive-index matching and in which swirl is generated in the flow by a tube-bundle in the pipe rotating about its own axis. The temporal change in swirl is effected by a computer controlled change of the angular velocity of the swirl generator. Measurement data from both cases, of increase and decrease of swirl, are presented. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Moiré-fringe measurement

A simple technique and an apparatus layout, for measuring moiré-fringe spacings, used in conjunction with the moiré replica technique, are introduced. Results of measurements, using this new technique for evaluation grid spacings show an agreement of more than 99.9 percent between the actual grid spacing and those evaluated using the proposed apparatus.     

共线式热电发电机在侧面散热情况下的性能

热电材料是一种环境友好型功能材料,其可以实现热能与电能的相互转化,在热电发电、热电制冷中具有许多应用.传统的热电发电机为$\pi$型结构,要求热电腿的长度相等,在某些情况该结构不利于热电发电机的优化设计.热电发电机在高温工况下会引起强烈的热应力甚至应力集中,从而缩短了其工作寿命.另外,热电发电机的工作温度于环境温度,这样必然会有一部分热量散失到环境中,从而影响热电发电机的性能.针对该现象,本文建立了考虑散热的新型共线式热电发电机模型,该模型的热电腿可以独立进行优化,基于有限元方法,对考虑侧面散热的共线式热电发电机进行了仿真模拟,分析了其在狄利克雷边界条件下的热电性能和力学性能,得到了热电发电机的温度场、电势场、应力场,探究了不同强度的对流散热系数对热电发电机热电性能和力学性能的影响.结果表明,对流散热会降低热电发电机的能量转化效率,当对流换热系数达到~100W/(m$^{2}\cdot$\textcelsius) 时,效率为~0.0479,该值比绝热状态的转化效率0.066 7 低28%.对流散热使热电发电机侧面热损失增加,降低了热应力.在实际应用中,应合理优化设计隔热系统,提高能量的转化效率.      

A New Method for Measuring Displacements of Micro Devices by an Optical Encoding System

Micro electro mechanical systems (MEMS) frequently require displacement measurements with high accuracy, a high sampling rate, and a long sensing travel. However, the available methods for measuring displacements of micro devices are typically limited in terms of at least one of these figures of merit. In this paper, we present a novel implementation of an optical encoding method for measuring displacements of micro devices that provides good capabilities in all of these figures of merit. The optical encoding system combines a commercial reading apparatus with a custom-made metal grating that can be easily produced during MEMS fabrication. Experimental tests demonstrate the ability of the system to measure displacements with a resolution of 25 nm and sampling rate of 1 MHz, under a variety of displacement rate functions.