Comments on "Earphones in Audiometry" [Zwislocki et al., J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 83, 1688-1689 (1988)

The Zwislocki et al. ["Earphones in Audiometry," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 83, 1688-1689 (1988)] Letter to the Editor states that insert earphones have some unresolved technical problems, such as limited frequency response, limited dynamic range and power handling capability, intersubject variability, and hygiene safety. In evaluating circumaural earphones, Zwislocki et al. say that the lack of a standard coupler disqualifies them for audiometry. Since this letter carries the weight of a CHABA committee recommendation, these issues are commented on herein. Section I was written primarily by Mead Killion and Sec. II primarily by Edgar Villchur. For brevity throughout, the authors of the Zwislocki et al. letter will be referred to as "the authors."     

Binaural loudness summation for speech presented via earphones and loudspeaker with and without visual cues

Preliminary data [M. Epstein and M. Florentine, Ear. Hear. 30, 234-237 (2009)] obtained using speech stimuli from a visually present talker heard via loudspeakers in a sound-attenuating chamber indicate little difference in loudness when listening with one or two ears (i.e., significantly reduced binaural loudness summation, BLS), which is known as "binaural loudness constancy." These data challenge current understanding drawn from laboratory measurements that indicate a tone presented binaurally is louder than the same tone presented monaurally. Twelve normal listeners were presented recorded spondees, monaurally and binaurally across a wide range of levels via earphones and a loudspeaker with and without visual cues. Statistical analyses of binaural-to-monaural ratios of magnitude estimates indicate that the amount of BLS is significantly less for speech presented via a loudspeaker with visual cues than for stimuli with any other combination of test parameters (i.e., speech presented via earphones or a loudspeaker without visual cues, and speech presented via earphones with visual cues). These results indicate that the loudness of a visually present talker in daily environments is little affected by switching between binaural and monaural listening. This supports the phenomenon of binaural loudness constancy and underscores the importance of ecological validity in loudness research.     

Coupling of earphones to human ears and to standard coupler

A standardized acoustical coupler should enable the calibration of audiometric earphones which ensures that the hearing thresholds determined in the audiometric measurement are independent of the earphone type. This requires that the coupler approximates the average human ear closely. Nevertheless, the differences among earphones as well as between human ears and the coupler affect the results of the audiometric measurements inducing uncertainty. As the mentioned differences are related to the coupling of different earphones to human ears and to a standardized coupler, the effects of this coupling are investigated by measuring the transfer functions from input voltage of the earphone terminals to the pressure at the ear canal entrance in two situations: open and blocked canals. Since the "ear canal entrance" is not well-defined for the coupler, transfer function measurements in the coupler were carried out in a similar way but at different depths. In order to describe and compare the earphone couplings, the pressure divisions at the entrance of the ear canal are calculated from the measured transfer functions. The results indicate that significant difference appears among sound pressures generated in different individuals' ears. Also, the earphone couplings to human ears and to the coupler differ considerably.     

Comparison of the noise attenuation of three audiometric earphones, with additional data on masking near threshold

The noise-excluding properties of a standard supra-aural audiometric earphone, a widely used circumaural-supra-aural combination, and an insert earphone sealed to the ear with a vinyl foam eartip were measured in a diffuse-field room complying with ANSI S12.6-1984. Data on attenuation were obtained monaurally with the nontest ear plugged and muffed. Results for the supra-aural earphones generally agreed well with previously reported measurements. A broadband masking noise was used to directly test the ANSI S3.1-1977 permissible background noise levels for measuring to audiometric zero using standard audiometric earphones. This "ANSI noise" raised the average thresholds of 15 normal-hearing test subjects by 3 to 5 dB at the octave frequencies from 500 to 4000 Hz. With a noise conforming to the less stringent OSHA-1983 regulation, average thresholds were elevated 9 to 17 dB. An "ENT office noise" with an overall sound level of 54 dBA raised average thresholds even further, by as much as 29 dB at 500 Hz. Use of the circumaural system in the office noise limited the threshold elevation to 11, 5, 2, and 0 dB at the four octave frequencies tested. With the fully ("deeply") inserted foam eartips, the threshold elevation in the simulated office noise was 2 dB or less at all test frequencies. Actual threshold elevations agreed closely with predictions based on a critical ratio calculation utilizing measured sound field noise levels and measured earphone attenuation values.     

The effect of bone conduction on the intensity independence of dichotic chords.

The relative salience of the pitch components of a two-tone dichotic chord is invariant with respect to the relative intensity of the two tones over a wide range of interaural intensity differences [R. Efron and E. W. Yund, J. Acoust, Soc. Am. 889--898 (1976)]. According to a recently developed model, the range of intensity independence is limited by the bone-conducted energy from the more intense tone [E. W. Yund and R. Efron, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 62, 607--617 (1977)]. The model predicts that a decrease in bone conduction such as the one achieved by using insertion earphones, must increase the range of intensity independence. This prediction is confirmed.     

Evaluating the maximum playback sound levels from portable digital audio players

To assess the maximum sound levels that may be experienced by young people in Canada from modern digital audio players, this study measured nine recent models of players and 20 earphones. Measurement methodology followed European standard BS EN 50332. Playback levels ranged from 101 to 107 dBA at maximum volume level. Estimated listener sound levels could vary from 79 to 125 dBA due to the following factors: (i) earphone seal against the ear, (ii) player output voltage, (iii) earphone sensitivity, and (iv) recorded music levels. There was a greater potential for high sound levels if intra-concha "earbud" earphones were used due to the effect of earphone seal. Simpler measurement techniques were explored as field test methods; the best results were obtained by sealing the microphone of a sound level meter to the earphone using a cupped hand and correcting for the free field response of the ear. Measurement of noise levels 0.25 m from the earphone showed that a bystander is unlikely to accurately judge listener sound levels.     

Auditory filter shapes at 8 and 10 kHz

Auditory filter shapes were derived from notched-noise masking data at center frequencies of 8 kHz (for three spectrum levels, N0 = 20, 35, and 50 dB) and 10 kHz (N0 = 50 dB). In order to minimize variability due to earphone placement, insert earphones (Etymotic Research ER2) were used and individual earmolds were made for each subject. These earphones were designed to give a flat frequency response at the eardrum for frequencies up to 14 kHz. The filter shapes were derived under the assumption that a frequency-dependent attenuation was applied to all stimuli before reaching the filter; this attenuation function was estimated from the variation of absolute threshold with frequency for the three youngest normally hearing subjects in our experiments. At 8 kHz, the mean equivalent rectangular bandwidths (ERBs) of the filters derived from the individual data for three subjects were 677, 637, and 1011 Hz for N0 = 20, 35, and 50 dB, respectively. The filters at N0 = 50 dB were roughly symmetrical, while, at the lower spectrum levels, the low-frequency skirt was steeper than the high-frequency skirt. The mean ERB at 10 kHz was 957 Hz. At this frequency, the filters for two subjects were steeper on the high-frequency side than the low-frequency side, while the third subject showed a slight asymmetry in the opposite direction.     

Binaural unmasking in infants

Localization responses to a broadband noise signal presented against a broadband noise masker were obtained from 12-month-old infants and adults. Two loudspeakers, one to the left and one to the right of the listener, continuously presented identical broadband maskers. On a trial, a broadband signal was added to one of the loudspeakers. Subjects were required to identify the loudspeaker producing the signal. Noise signals were either coherent (from the same noise generator) or incoherent (from an independent noise generator). Both infants and adults found it easier to locate the incoherent signals even when the two types of signals were adjusted to produce equal increments in power. Since monaural performance, after this adjustment, should be equivalent for the two cases, superior performance for incoherent signals implies that binaural processing is involved. The same result was observed in control experiments in which coherent and incoherent signals were presented over earphones to adults. These results suggest that the mechanisms responsible for binaural unmasking are operative by 12 months of age.     

Auditory brainstem responses to chirps delivered by different insert earphones

The frequency response and sensitivity of the ER-3A and ER-2 insert earphones are measured in the occluded-ear simulator using three ear canal extensions. Compared to the other two extensions, the DB 0370 (Bru?el & Kj?r), which is recommended by the international standards, introduces a significant resonance peak around 4500 Hz. The ER-3A has an amplitude response like a band-pass filter (1400 Hz, 6 dB/octave -4000 Hz, -36 dB/octave), and a group delay with "ripples" of up to ±0.5 ms, while the ER-2 has an amplitude response, and a group delay which are flat and smooth up to above 10000 Hz. Both earphones are used to record auditory brainstem responses, ABRs, from 22 normal-hearing ears in response to two chirps and a click at levels from 20 to 80 dB nHL. While the click-ABRs are slightly larger for ER-2 than for ER-3A, the chirp-ABRs are much larger for ER-2 than for ER-3A at levels below 60 dB nHL. With a simulated amplitude response of the ER-3A and the smooth group delay of the ER-2 it is shown that the increased chirp-ABR amplitude with the ER-2 is caused by its broader amplitude response and not by its smoother group delay.     

The use of acoustical test fixtures for the measurement of hearing protector attenuation. Part II: Modeling the external ear, simulating bone conduction, and comparing test fixture and real-ear data

This paper investigates two main features of the human head which influence the measured attenuation of circumaural and intraaural hearing protection devices (HPDs): the external ear and the different pathways of bone conduction. A theoretical model for the external ear shows that its influence on the insertion loss of HPDs, on the sensitivity level of headphones or earphones, and on the insertion gain of hearing aids, all can be described by one equation. While it is not necessary to simulate the eardrum impedance in order to measure the insertion loss of earmuffs and the sensitivity level of headphones with acoustical test fixtures (ATFs), the required accuracy of an ear simulator is more stringent when the same measurements are performed on intraaural devices. For the evaluation of HPDs, bone conduction plays an important role. We have developed a model to estimate HPD-dependent bone conduction effects. The model includes two bone conduction sources: one in the external ear and one in the middle ear. The model explains, for example, the occlusion effect of HPDs and the masking error at low frequencies due to physiological noise that arises when real-ear attenuation at threshold (REAT) measurements are made. Consequently, objectively measured insertion loss can now be used to predict REAT with improved accuracy. ATF and REAT data are compared using nine earmuffs and nine earplugs. In the majority of cases, the two sets of data agree well. Discrepancies are discussed.     

Effects of social, demographical and behavioral factors on the sound level evaluation in urban open spaces

The aim of this study is to analyze the effects of social, demographical and behavioral factors as well as long-term sound experience on the subjective evaluation of sound level in urban open public spaces. This is based on a series of large scale surveys in 19 urban open spaces in Europe and China. The results suggest that the effects of social/demographical factors, including age, gender, occupation, education and residential status, on the sound level evaluation are generally insignificant, although occupation and education are two related factors and both correlate to the sound level evaluation more than other factors. The effects of some behavioral factors, including wearing earphones, reading/writing and moving activities, are also insignificant on the sound level evaluation, but the watching behavior is highly related to the sound level evaluation. Compared to the social, demographical and behavioral factors, the long-term sound experience, i.e. the acoustic environment at home, significantly affect the sound level evaluation in urban open spaces. It is important to note that between the social/demographical factors, there are generally significant correlations, although the correlation coefficients may not be high. It is also noted that there are considerable variations between different urban open spaces.     

NBS-9A coupler-to-eardrum transformation: TDH-39 and TDH-49 earphones

A transformation was derived to convert sound-pressure levels referenced to an NBS-9A coupler to corresponding eardrum sound-pressure levels. It was found that the same transformation may be used for male and female adults and for both TDH-39 and TDH-49 earphones in MX-41/AR supra-aural cushions. It was determined that from 250-2000 Hz the transformation provides an eardrum sound-pressure level estimate that is within 6 dB of the actual eardrum level for 95% of individuals. However, in the 4000-6300-Hz range, the accuracy deteriorates to +/- 12 dB of actual eardrum level for 95% of individuals.     

Reference threshold sound-pressure levels for the TDH-50 and ER-3A earphones

Reference threshold sound-pressure levels were established for a new insert earphone, the ER-3A tubephone, and for the TDH-50 earphone. In test-retest comparisons, the tubephone produced estimates of auditory threshold as reliable as the thresholds produced by the supraaural earphone. Reference thresholds were developed for the two earphones from data contributed by three laboratories. While the TDH-50 data are in good agreement with the provisional ANSI 6-cc coupler reference levels (ASHA, 1982), the ER-3A data are at variance with the manufacturer's provisional recommendation for 2-cc coupler reference thresholds for frequencies below 1 kHz. The differences are attributed to physiologic noise that masked the lower frequency thresholds.     

入耳式耳机腔体结构的模型与优化

耳机的频响是由单元和腔体结构共同决定的。现有的耳机腔体结构仿真多采用集总参数模型,这类模型在高频段存在缺陷。该文在入耳式耳机的腔体结构仿真中引入基于传输线理论的声学模型,与传统模型相比,考虑损耗的传输线模型可提高入耳式耳机5 kHz～10 kHz频响仿真的准确性。在此基础上,优化算法提出改善耳机中高频频响的出声管设计方法。     

Perceived sound quality of reproductions with different frequency responses and sound levels

Three programs (female voice, jazz music, and pink noise) were reproduced using four different frequency responses and two different sound levels. Fourteen normal hearing subjects listened to the reproduction via earphones and judged the sound quality on seven perceptual scales (loudness, clarity, fullness, spaciousness, brightness, softness/gentleness, and nearness) and a fidelity scale. Significant differences among the reproductions appeared in all scales and could be attributed to the differences in frequency response or sound level or both. Interactions between the reproductions and the programs could be explained by the relations between the spectrum of the programs and the frequency responses used. The results for the noise program were similar to those for the jazz music program.     

Factors contributing to the uncertainty in circumaural earphone calibration for audiometric testing

This paper describes important factors that need to be considered when determining the uncertainty in the calibration of the HDA200 circumaural earphones which are used in audiometric and psychoacoustic tests. This paper describes the instruments that were used, the procedures and the results of the measurements. Each of these measurements generated an uncertainty component and the final calculus of the total uncertainty was computed using standard procedures. This paper highlights the necessity for researches on the contribution that the artificial ears have on the uncertainty and establishes a calibration method.     

Ultrasound production by the long haired rat of Australia (Rattus Villosissimus)

The ultrasonic vocalizations produced by the long haired Australian rat Rattus villosissimus, during agonistic behaviour were investigated using a commercial ultrasonic receiver with earphones, a microphone and storage oscilloscope, and a tape recorder and sonograph. The rats were found to produce one audible call with ultrasonic components up to 64 kHz, the limit of the detecting apparatus used, and one pure ultrasound. Suggestions are made as to their behavioural significance.     

Auditory spatial resolution in horizontal,vertical, and diagonal planes

Minimum audible angle (MAA) and minimum audible movement angle (MAMA) thresholds were measured for stimuli in horizontal, vertical, and diagonal (60 degrees) planes. A pseudovirtual technique was employed in which signals were recorded through KEMAR's ears and played back to subjects through insert earphones. Thresholds were obtained for wideband, high-pass, and low-pass noises. Only 6 of 20 subjects obtained wideband vertical-plane MAAs less than 10 degrees, and only these 6 subjects were retained for the complete study. For all three filter conditions thresholds were lowest in the horizontal plane, slightly (but significantly) higher in the diagonal plane, and highest for the vertical plane. These results were similar in magnitude and pattern to those reported by Perrott and Saberi [J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 87, 1728-1731 (1990)] and Saberi and Perrott [J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 88, 2639-2644 (1990)], except that these investigators generally found that thresholds for diagonal planes were as good as those for the horizontal plane. The present results are consistent with the hypothesis that diagonal-plane performance is based on independent contributions from a horizontal-plane system (sensitive to interaural differences) and a vertical-plane system (sensitive to pinna-based spectral changes). Measurements of the stimuli recorded through KEMAR indicated that sources presented from diagonal planes can produce larger interaural level differences (ILDs) in certain frequency regions than would be expected based on the horizontal projection of the trajectory. Such frequency-specific ILD cues may underlie the very good performance reported in previous studies for diagonal spatial resolution. Subjects in the present study could apparently not take advantage of these cues in the diagonal-plane condition, possibly because they did not externalize the images to their appropriate positions in space or possibly because of the absence of a patterned visual field.     

Relationship between changes in voice pitch and loudness

Changes in mean fundamental frequency accompanying changes in loudness of phonation are analyzed in 9 professional singers, 9 nonsingers, and 10 male and 10 female patients suffering from vocal functional dysfunction. The subjects read discursive texts with noise in earphones, and some also at voluntarily varied vocal loudness. The healthy subjects phonated as softly and as loudly as possible at various fundamental frequencies throughout their pitch ranges, and the resulting mean phonetograms are compared. Mean pitch was found to increase by about half-semitones per decibel sound level. Grossly, the subject groups gave similar results, although the singers changed voice pitch more than the nonsingers. The voice pitch changes may be explained as passive results of changes of subglottal pressure required for the sound level variation.     

Auditory filter shapes at low center frequencies in young and elderly hearing-impaired subjects.

Auditory filter shapes were measured for two groups of hearing-impaired subjects, young and elderly, matched for audiometric loss, for center frequencies (fc) of 100, 200, 400, and 800 Hz using a modified notched-noise method [B. R. Glasberg and B. C. J. Moore, Hear. Res. 47, 103-138 (1990)]. Two noise bands, each 0.4fc wide, were used; they were placed both symmetrically and asymmetrically about the signal frequency to allow the measurement of filter asymmetry. The overall noise level was either 77 or 87 dB SPL. Stimuli were delivered monaurally using Sennheiser HD424 earphones. Although auditory filters for the hearing-impaired subjects were generally broader than for normally hearing subjects [Moore et al., J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 87, 132-140 (1990)], some hearing-impaired subjects with mild losses had normal filters. The filters tended to broaden with increasing hearing loss. There were not any clear differences in filter characteristics between young and elderly hearing-impaired subjects. The signal-to-noise ratios at the outputs of the auditory filters required for threshold (K) tended to be lower than normal for the young hearing-impaired subjects, but were not significantly different from normal for the elderly hearing-impaired subjects. The lower K values for the young hearing-impaired subjects may occur because broadened auditory filters reduce the deleterious effects on signal detection of fluctuations in the noise.