Phosphomolybdic heteropolycompounds as oxidation catalysts. Effect of transition metals as counter-ions

Phosphomolybdic compounds were first described as active catalysts in heterogeneous catalytic reactions some twenty-five years ago. Research on these catalysts underwent a huge acceleration when an industrial application in the oxidation of methacrolein to methacrylic acid was reported. They were later developed with success as catalysts for the oxidative dehydrogenation of isobutyric acid into methacrylic acid for which they surpass in many aspects the FePO catalysts. More recently phosphomolybdic catalysts were shown to be very efficient for the oxidation of light alkanes. The structure of these ionic solids with discrete cations and anions can be defined at the molecular level of the heteropolyanion 〚PMo₁₂O₄₀〛^3–, this feature makes them attractive for fundamental studies on catalytic reaction mechanism or catalytic site visualization. In the latter case they represent a unique model of a mixed oxide cluster that can be advantageously used to design new catalysts. Starting from the acid H₃〚PMo₁₂O₄₀〛 two substitution types leading to important modifications of the catalytic properties are possible: (i) the substitution of protons with counter-cations, (ii) the substitution of molybdenum in the anions. This review addresses the effect of transition metals substituting protons on both catalytic and physicochemical properties. It will focus on the influence of iron, copper and vanadyl directly introduced as counter-cations and that of vanadium initially substituting molybdenum in the anion but which moves out due to a partial rebuilding of the anions under catalytic reaction conditions. These transition metals have important and complex effects and have been widely studied. In both cases alkaline metals substituting protons have been also studied.     

Selective Oxidation of Isobutene over CsFeCoBiMnMoOx Mixed Oxide Catalyst

Mixed oxide catalyst Cs0.1Fe2Co6BiMnMo12Ox was prepared by the coprecipitation method.Selective oxidation of isobutene was carried out in a fixed-bed reactor over Cs0.1Fe2Co6BiMnMo12Ox.The results showed that the catalyst had high catalytic activity. Under the optimum reaction conditions(n(i-C4):n(O2)=1:2-1:4, space velocity=180 h^-1, T=360℃), the yields of methacrolein and methacrylic acid can reach 80% and 8%, respectively. The total yield of liquid products (methacrolein, methacrylic acid and acetic acid) can reach about 90%.     

Selective oxidation of isobutane over Mo-V-Te mixed oxide catalysts with different tellurium contents

A series of MoV_0.3Te_x (x = 0−0.3) mixed oxides were prepared and investigated for the selective oxidation of isobutane. Among them, MoV_0.3Te_0.23 showed the best methacrolein and methacrylic acid selectivity (as high as 17% and 16%, respectively), and the yield to methacrolein and methacrylic acid reached 3.6% and 3.5%, respectively, at 21.3% isobutane conversion at 440°C.     

Catalytic activity of V-substituted Cs2Te0.2H0.6 + xPMo12 ? xVxOn heteropoly compounds in selective oxidation of isobutane

A series of Cs₂Te_0.2H_{0.6 + x} PMo_{12 − x} V _x O _n (x = 0–3) heteropoly compounds has been prepared and tested in the partial oxidation of isobutane. Catalytic tests show that at 350°C very high selectivity to methacrylic acid (60.1%) can be achieved at isobutane conversion of 12.2% over a Cs_2.0Te_0.2H_1.6PMo₁₁VO _n catalyst with only one molybdenum atom per unit cell substituted by vanadium. The presence of Te⁴⁺ in the heteropoly compounds appears to interfere with the dehydrqgenation step and favor the formation of methacrolein and methacrylic acid.     

TI(III) oxidation of alkenes and alkynes and Ru(III) catalysis in the oxidation of alkenes: A kinetic and mechanistic study

The oxidation of trans-stilbene, phenylacetylene, and diphenylacetylene by Tl(OAc)₃ in aqueous acetic acid medium in the presence of HClO₄ follows the rate law in [H⁺] of 0.1–1.0M, the [H⁺] dependence below 0.1M being marginal. The reactions are strongly dielectric dependent. The order of reactivity among the substrates is styrene > phenylacetylene and trans-stilbene > diphenylacetylene. A mechanism involving the oxythallation adduct by the Tl⁺(OAc)₂ species has been discussed. The use of Ru(III) as a homogeneous catalyst brings a change in the kinetic orders for trans-stilbene, the rate law being The formation constants K for the Ru(III)–alkene π complex at 40, 50, and 60°C are 90.14M^?1, 105.2M^?1, and 127.7M^?1, respectively. Interestingly the oxidation of phenylacetylene and diphenylacetylene does not undergo catalysis by Ru(III). The mechanism involving the metal–arene π complex is discussed.     

Catalytic Reduction of NOx by CO and Hydrocarbons Over Different Catalysts in the Presence or Absence of O2

The performances of a non-noble metal (catalyst A), a non-noble metal catalyst containing a smaller amount of a noble metal (catalyst B) and noble metal (catalyst C) for NOx reduction at 400 - 600°C and space velocity of 16×10^-1h^-1 have been studied by means of a fixed-bed continuous flow system. In both the absence and presence of oxygen, the following activity orders of catalysts for the reduction of NOx to N₂ by CO and C₃H₆(HC) can be given: C > B > A and B > A C, respectively. Meanwhile, there was CO formation in the reduction reactions of NOx by HC on the three catalysts. The amount of CO produced on catalyst C was the largest of the three catalysts.     

Oxidation of CO and hydrocarbons over perovskite-type complex oxides

The catalytic activity of perovskites M^IM^IIO₃ (M^I=La; M^II=Co, Mn, Cr, Al, Ni, and V) and M^ICoO₃ (M=Y, Nd, Sm, and Er) in the oxidation of CO, propylene, and ethylbenzene was investigated. The highest activity was observed for the M^ICoO₃ catalysts with perfect perovskite structure. The nature of the rare-earth element has no influence on the catalytic activity. Deformation of the octahedral coordination of the metal was found for the less active catalysts. The interaction of gases (CO, CO+air) with the catalyst surface was investigated. The more active catalysts adsorb a greater amount of O₂, and the adsorption occurs in the temperature region of the oxidation reaction. The activities of the perovskite- and spinel-type catalysts were compared under similar conditions. Translated fromIzvestiya Akademii Nauk. Seriya Khimicheskaya, No. 4, pp. 698–701, April, 1999.     

Kinetics of isobutylene oxidation on a Mo-Sb-Te-O (1 : 0.6 : 0.06) catalyst

Kinetics of isobutylene oxidation over a Mo-Sb-Te-O catalyst is studied in a flow-circulation system with the Korneichuk differential reactor. The reaction orders of methacrolein, acetic acid, acetone, and CO₂ formation, as well as the order of the overall reaction of isobutylene oxidation into methacrolein, with respect to oxygen and isobutylene are determined at 613–703 K and oxygen concentrations of (0.33–13.05) x 10⁻³ mol/1 and isobutylene (3.2–121.9) × 10⁻⁴ mol/1. The activation energies of these reactions are determined.     

Mechanism of catalytic ascorbic acid oxidation system Cu2+–ascorbic acid–O2

Analysis is made of reported results on the kinetics and mechanism of ascorbic acid oxidation with oxygen in the presence of cupric ions. The diversities due to methodological reasons are cleared up. A kinetic study of the mechanism of Cu²⁺ anaerobic reaction with ascorbic acid (DH₂) is carried out. The true kinetic regularities of catalytic ascorbic acid oxidation with oxygen are established at 2.7 ≤ pH < 4, 5 × 10^?4 ≤ [DH₂] ≤ 10^?2M, 10^?4 ≤ [Cu²⁺] ≤ 10^?3M, and 10^?4 ≤ [O₂] ≤ 10^?3M: where??₁ (25°C) = 0.13 ± 0.01 M^?0.5˙sec^?1. The activation energy for this reaction is E₁ = 22 ± 1 kcal/mol. It is found by means of adding Cu⁺ acceptors (acetonitrile and allyl alcohol) that the catalytic process is of a chain nature. The Cu⁺ ion generation at the interaction of the Cu²⁺ ion with ascorbic acid is the initiation step. The rate of the chain initiation at [Cu²⁺] ± 10^?4M, [DH₂] ± 10^?2M, 2.5 < pH < 4, is where??_i,1 (25°C) = (1.8 ± 0.3)M^?1˙sec^?1, E_i,1 = 31 ± 2 kcal/mol. The reaction of the Cu⁺ ion with O₂ is involved in a chain propagation, so that the rate of catalytic ascorbic acid oxidation for the system Cu²⁺? DH₂? O₂ is where??₁ (25°C) = (5 ± 0.5) × 10⁴ M^?1˙sec^?1. The Cu⁺ ion and a species interacting with ascorbate are involved to quadratic chain termination. By means of photochemical and flow electron spin resonance methods we obtained data characteristic of the reactivities of ascorbic acid radicals and ruled out their importance for the catalytic chain process. A new type of chain mechanism of catalytic ascorbic acid oxidation with oxygen is proposed: .     

Solvay type VCl3 isospecific catalysts

Solvay type S –VCl₃ catalyst has 7% of catalytically active vanadium sites ([C^*]) with k_p (rate constant of propagation) = 31 (M s)^?1 for ethylene polymerization. Addition of a comonomer, propylene of 4-methylpentene-1 (4-MP) significantly raised the ethylene polymerization activity. S –VCI₃ catalyst has very small amounts of catalytically active vanadium for propylene polymerizations: [C] = 0.19% with k_p,i = 857 (M s)^?1 and [C] = 0.45% with k_p,a = 23 (M s)^?1 for isospecific and nonspecific sites, respectively. Addition of a conomer, ethylene or 4-MP. lowered the propylene polymerization activity. S –VCI₃ is more easily reduced to the divalent ion by AIR₃ than S –TiCl₃. Methyl-p-toluate moderates the reducting power of AIR₃; it increase the productivity and stereoselectivity of the S –YiCl₃ catalyst, VCI₃ supported on MgCl₂ (CW–V catalyst) has enhanced rate constant of propylene polymerization but has the opposite effects on the S –TiCl₃ Catalyst. VCI₃ supported on MgCl₂ (CW–V catalyst) has enhances rate constant of propylene polymerization but only a minute fraction of the supported vanadiums are catalytically active: [C] = 0.019% and k_p,i = 1580 (Ms)^?1, [C] = 0.057% and k_p,i = 58 (M s)^?1. This is compared with far greater number of catalytically active titanium sites in the TiCl₃ supported on MgCl₂ catalyst: [C] = 6% and k_p,i = 200 (M s)^?1, [C] = 6% and k_p,a = 16(M s)^?1. Therefore, both the S –VCI₃ and CW–V catalysts are highly stereoselective but low in efficiency with respect to the utilization of the vanadium ion in the catalysis.     

Oxidation of hydrocarbons with dioxygen via peroxide intermediates

Cyclohexane, cyclohexene, and -pinene react with dioxygen in the liquid phase in the presence of catalysts based on platinum, heteropoly compounds (HPCs), metal-containing HPCs, and combinations of these components. In cyclohexane and -pinene oxidations occurring by an autooxidation mechanism at 160–170 and 80– 90°C, respectively, the catalysts serve to control free-radical processes. The simultaneous action of a Ru-containing phosphotungstate as a hydroperoxide decomposition catalyst and of a V-containing phosphotungstate as a scavenger of hydroxyl and alkoxyl radicals increases the cyclohexanol + cyclohexanone selectivity of cyclohexane oxidation without yielding a hydroperoxide. A Pt/C catalyst affords an increase in -pinene conversion in a fixed time. In combination with ammonia or tetrahexylammonium chloride admixtures, it retards side reactions and raises the yield of verbenol and verbenone, which are the most valuable products. During cyclohexane, cyclohexene, and -pinene oxidation with an O₂-H₂ mixture at room temperature, no free-radical chain reaction develops in the Pt-HPC system and reactive intermediates form and interact, involving the HPC, with hydrocarbons on the surface of the platinum catalyst. Analysis of reactivity and of the composition of substrate oxidation products suggests a mechanism for the conjugate oxidation of hydrocarbons in systems with various HPCs. In this mechanism, HPC composition determines, to a large extent, the nature of reactive intermediates, which may be peroxides or radicals bound to platinum or HPC. The properties of catalytic systems in oxidation with O₂-H₂ mixtures can be controlled by selecting an appropriate HPC as the modifying component.__________Translated from Kinetika i Kataliz, Vol. 46, No. 2, 2005, pp. 219–232.Original Russian Text Copyright © 2005 by N. Kuznetsova, L. Kuznetsova, Kirillova, Detusheva, Likholobov, Khramov, Ansel.     

Reduction behavior of Ru/CeO2 catalysts and their activity for wet oxidation

Three kinds of Ru/CeO₂ catalysts were prepared. The mobility of the oxygen on Ru and their catalytic activity in the wet oxidation of acetic acid was investigated. Ru was present in the form of RuO₂, and TPR experiment showed that the reaction, RuO₂ + 2H₂ Ru + 2H₂O, took place in different temperature ranges depending upon the kind of the catalysts. The catalyst with easily reducible oxygen on Ru had high activity in wet oxidation, and the importance of the release of oxygen from Ru to the reactant was suggested.     

Syntheses and Crystal Structures of Novel Ternary Alkali Metal Gold Acetylides MIAuC2 (MI = Li,Na, K,Rb, Cs)

By the reaction of AuI with alkali metal hydrogen acetylides M^IC₂H (M^I = Li–Cs) in liquid ammonia and subsequent heating of the remaining residue in refluxing pyridine (M^I = Li, Na, K) or as a solid phase at about 110 °C in vacuum (M^I = Rb, Cs) ternary alkali metal gold acetylides M^IAuC₂ were obtained. Their crystal structures were investigated by the means of X‐ray powder diffraction. [Au(C₂)_2/2^–] chains are the characteristic structural motif which are packed in a hexagonal (LiAgC₂) and tetragonal arrangement (NaAuC₂–CsAuC₂), respectively. Simple calculations based on the close packing of rods and spheres can explain these different arrangements. The existence of C–C triple bonds in the title compounds is confirmed by Raman spectroscopic investigations.     

Oxidation of isobutane catalyzed by vanadyl, copper and cesium substituted H3PMo12O40

Effects of Cs⁺, H⁺ and Cu²⁺ counterions in the vanadium containing heteropoly compounds Cs_xH_1-xVO[PMo₁₂O₄₀] and Cs_yH_0.5-yCu_0.25VO[PMo₁₂O₄₀] on the catalytic oxidation of isobutane and characterization by TGA, IR and ESR spectroscopies are reported. A high selectivity of 76% for methacrylic acid and methacrolein together has been obtained with Cs_0.75H_0.25VO[PMo₁₂O₄₀] catalysts at a reactivity of 5.3x10^-1 mmol/h cm³.     

Synthesis, characterization, and ethylene polymerization behavior of [(RR′-admpzp)2Ti(OPr)2] complexes (RR′-admpzp = 1-dialkylamino-3-(3,5-dimethyl-pyrazol-1-yl)-propan-2-olate)

[(RR′-admpzp)₂Ti(OPrⁱ)₂] complexes (2a-c), synthesized from reaction of Ti(OPrⁱ)₃Cl (0.5 equiv) with 1-dialkylamino-3-(3,5-dimethyl-pyrazol-1-yl)-propan-2-ol compounds in the presence of triethylamine (0.5 equiv), are pseudo-octahedral with each RR′-admpzp ligand κ²-O,N(pyrazolyl) coordinated to the titanium center. In solution, 2a-c adopt isomeric structures that are in dynamic equilibrium. At 23 °C, 2a-c/1000 MAO catalyst systems furnished high molecular weight polymers with narrow molecular weight distributions (M_w/M_n = 2.7-2.8). At 100 °C, 2a-c/MAO catalyst systems exhibited increased polymerization activity and 2c/1000 MAO system furnished high molecular weight polyethylene with a molecular weight distribution (M_w/M_n = 2.1) that is close to that found for single-site catalysts.     

Chain ion molecular mechanism of ascorbic acid oxidation with hydrogen peroxide. Cu3+ ion as a chain carrier

The kinetics and mechanism of ascorbic acid (DH₂) oxidation have been studied under anaerobic conditions in the presence of Cu²⁺ ions. At 10^?4 ≤ [Cu²⁺]₀ < 10^?3M, 10^?3 ≤ [DH₂]₀ < 10^?2M, 10^?2 ≤ [H₂O₂] ≤ 0.1M, 3 ≤ pH < 4, the following expression for the initial rate of ascorbic acid oxidation was obtained: where χ₂ (25°C) = (6.5 ± 0.6) × 10^?3 sec^?1. The effective activation energy is E₂ = 25 ± 1 kcal/mol. The chain mechanism of the reaction was established by addition of Cu⁺ acceptors (allyl alcohol and acetonitrile). The rate of the catalytic reaction is related to the rate of Cu⁺ initiation in the Cu²⁺ reaction with ascorbic acid by the expression where C is a function of pH and of H₂O₂ concentration. The rate equation where k₁(25°C) = (5.3 ± 1) × 10³M^?1 sec^?1 is true for the steady-state catalytic reaction. The Cu⁺ ion and a species, which undergoes acid–base and unimolecular conversions at the chain propagation step, are involved in quadratic chain termination. Ethanol and terbutanol do not affect the rate of the chain reaction at concentrations up to ≈0.3M. When the Cu²⁺–DH₂–H₂O₂ system is irradiated with UV light (λ = 313 nm), the rate of ascorbic acid oxidation increases by the value of the rate of the photochemical reaction in the absence of the catalyst. Hydroxyl radicals are not formed during the interaction of Cu⁺ with H₂O₂, and the chain mechanism of catalytic oxidation of ascorbic acid is quantitatively described by the following scheme. Initiation: Propagation: Termination:      

On “Coordinational Stabilization” of High Oxidation States of Metals

A hypothesis of the ligand matrix stabilization of metal ions in high oxidation states is considered using the structural thermodynamic model and stabilization of Zr⁴⁺ ion in ZrC₆₀ cluster as an example. The corresponding energy estimates are presented for fullerides of the M ^z @C _m M ^s type (m 60). The possibility of using fullerenes as matrices with a high electron affinity is shown.     

Hydrocarbon oxidation with an oxygen-hydrogen mixture: Catalytic systems based on the interaction of platinum or palladium with a heteropoly compound

A series of studies of hydrocarbon oxidation by the O₂ + H₂ mixture in the presence of catalytic systems based on Pt or Pd and a heteropoly compound (HPC) is reviewed. The catalytic systems were prepared from Pd(II) complexes with the heteropoly tungstate anions PW₁₁O ₂₉ ^7? and PW₉O ₃₄ ^9? , the complex salt [Pt(NH₃)₄][H₂Mo₁₂O₄₀]₂ · 7H₂O, mixtures of H₂PtCl₄ or H₂PtCl₆ with H_{3 + n} PMo_{12 ? n} V _n O₄₀ (n = 0–3) heteropoly acids, or supported platinum dispersed in HPC solutions. The interaction of metal ions and particles with HPCs in the initial state and after thermal and redox treatments was investigated by NMR, IR spectroscopy, XPS, EXAFS, HREM, and TPR. The catalytic systems were tested in the liquid-phase oxidation of alkanes, cyclohexane, cycloalkenes, benzene, toluene, and phenol with the O₂ + H₂ mixture at low temperatures. Effective supported catalysts based on platinum nanoparticles associated with the redox-active HPCs H₃PMo₁₂O₄₀ and H₄PMo₁₁VO₄₀ were prepared for gas-phase benzene oxidation into phenol. The oxidation mechanism includes the interaction between dioxygen and platinum (or palladium) and the participation of the HPC in the formation of active oxygen species of radical nature.     

Cyclohexane oxidation catalyzed by variable-valence metal compounds in the presence of propionic aldehyde

The effect of propionic aldehyde additives on the kinetics and mechanism of cyclohexane oxidation by molecular oxygen catalyzed by variable-valence metal salts is studied. The effect of the catalyst metal (M) on the rate of oxygen consumption, yield, and ratio of reaction products (cyclohexanol, cyclohexanone, cyclohexyl hydroperoxide (CHHP), and propionic acid and peracid) is studied. The catalytic functions of the variable-valence metal salts are determined by their ability to influence the rate of the homolysis of the O–O bonds of peroxide compounds, which correlates with the redox potential of the metal ion for most of the catalysts studied. The fact that other salts of variable-valence metals do not fit this correlation is due to the multifunctional action of catalysts involved in chain initiation, termination, and degenerate branching. The main role of aldehyde in the process under consideration is to promote oxidation. According to the quantum-chemical studies, the catalyst cation largely determines both the structure of the [Mⁿ⁺-CHHP] transition complex and the rates of competitive homolysis and heterolysis of cyclohexyl hydroperoxide.     

Simple Electrodeposition of Dendritic Pd Without Supporting Electrolyte and Its Electrocatalytic Activity Toward Oxygen Reduction and H2O2 Sensing

Metallic palladium (Pd) electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) oxidation/reduction are prepared via electroplating on a gold metal substrate from dilute (5 to 50 mM) aqueous K₂PdCl₄ solution. The best Pd catalyst layer possessing dendritic nanostructures is formed on the Au substrate surface from 50 mM Pd precursor solution (denoted as Pd‐50) without any additional salt, acid or Pd templating chemical species. The Pd‐50 consisted of nanostructured dendrites of polycrystalline Pd metal and micropores within the dendrites which provide high catalyst surface area and further facilitate reactant mass transport to the catalyst surface. The electrocatalytic activity of Pd‐50 proved to be better than that of a commercial Pt (Pt/C) in terms of lower overpotential for the onset and half‐wave potentials and a greater number of electrons (n) transferred. Furthermore, amperometric i–t curves of Pd‐50 for H₂O₂ electrochemical reaction show high sensitivities (822.2 and ?851.9 µA mM^?1 cm^?2) and low detection limits (1.1 and 7.91 µM) based on H₂O₂ oxidation H₂O₂ reduction, respectively, along with a fast response (<1 s).