Microstructure and physico-chemical transformation of some common woods from Cameroon during drying

Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry - The influence of drying on the microstructure, physical and chemical properties of some tropical wood species has been investigated using...     

Ethanol production from pretreated olive tree wood and sunflower stalks by an SSF process

Olive tree wood and sunflower stalks are agricultural residues largely available at low cost in Mediterranean countries. As renewable lignocellulosic materials, their bioconversion may allow both obtaining a value-added product, for fuel ethanol, and facilitating their elimination. In this work, the ethanol production from olive tree wood and sunflower stalks by a simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) process is studied. As a pretreatment, steam explosion at different temperatures was applied. The water insoluble fractions of steam-pretreated sunflower stalks and steamed, delignified olive tree wood were used as substrates at 10% w/v concentration for an SSF process by a cellulolytic commercial complex and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. After 72-h fermentation, ethanol concentrations up to 30 g/L were obtained in delignified steam-pretreated olive tree wood at 230°C and 5 min. Sunflower stalks pretretated at 220°C and 5 min gave maximum ethanol concentrations of 21 g/L in SSF experiments.     

CO2 production from degraded woods via a novel integrated pyrolysis-combustion process

The process of combustion produces minimal amounts of CO₂ for conventional radiocarbon dating, making it difficult to estimate the age of the archaeological wood. Thus, the objective of this paper is to introduce a novel integrated pyrolysis-combustion process that will maximize the production of CO₂. Degraded wood samples were assumed to be archaeological samples for this study, namely Karas (Aquilaria malaccensis), Meranti (Shorea acuminate) and Setumpol (Hydnocarpus spp.) were used for this process. The process of CO₂ production was optimized by the application of design of experiment (DOE) and response surface method. The mathematical model was examined using the analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 5% level of significance. The temperature during the pyrolysis process, retention time and flow rates for the carrier gas (argon) were found to have a positive influence on the production of CO₂. A second-order model was obtained to predict the production of CO₂ as a function of temperature, retention time and flow rate. Optimum conditions for the production of CO₂ were obtained at a pyrolysis temperature of 300 °C, 20 min retention and 980, 984 and 987.6 ml/min argon flow rate for Karas, Meranti and Setumpol, respectively. The optimized yields of carbon dioxide produced were 82.57, 79.7 and 84% for Karas, Meranti and Setumpol, respectively. The different yields of carbon dioxide were due to the carbon content in the individual samples.     

Thermomechanical analysis of quartz,glasses and woods

The expansion and viscoelastic behavior of natural and synthetic materials changes during thermal treatment. Thermomechanical analysis (TMA) is the method to determine these mechanical properties directly as a function of time and temperature. Depending on the selected measuring mode either the expansivity (dilatometry), the viscous flow or the elastic behaviour can be investigated. Young's modulus is calculated from flexure and compression measurements.To show some of these possibilities quartz, various glasses and woods have been analysed. The solid transition of– quartz revealed a minimum of the modulus of elasticity during the transition. Flexure measurements of wood samples during degradation show the different elastic regions.

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Zusammenfassung Das Ausdehnungs- und viskoelastische Verhalten natürlicher und synthetischer Materialen verändert sich bei Wärmebehandlungen. Das Verfahren zur Bestimmung dieser mechanischen Eigenschaften als eine Funktion von Zeit und Temperatur ist die thermomechanische Analyse (TMA). In Abhängigkeit vom gewählten Meßverfahren können Ausdehnungsvermögen (Dilatometrie), Reibungsströmung oder das elastische Verhalten untersucht werden. Das Elastizitätsmodul wird aus Biegungs- und Kompressionsmessungen ermittelt.Um einige dieser Möglichkeiten aufzuzeigen, wurden Quarz, verschiedene Gläser und Hölzer analysiert. Die Feststoffumwandlung -ß-Quarz zeigt während der Umwandlung ein minimales Elastizitätsmodul. Biegungsmessungen an Holzproben zeigen bei Zersetzung verschiedene elastische Regionen.

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Dedicated to Prof. Dr. H. J. Seifert on the occasion of his 60^th birthday     

Thermoanalysis of ancient,fresh and waterlogged woods

TG, DTG and DSC curves are presented and analytical results, obtained by thermogravimetry and DSC calorimetry, of ancient, fresh and waterlogged wood samples, are discussed. The criteria by which the percent content of lignin, cellulose, water and ashes (residue after heating at 700) were obtained by thermogravimetry, are outlined. Finally DSC curves are reported and the degradation which happen in some wood samples evidenced, especially in the case of waterlogged wood.

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Zusammenfassung Die Differenzierung von historischen, neuzeitlichen und gewÄsserten Holzproben mit den Methoden der Thermogravimetrie und DSC wurde untersucht und diskutiert. Die Kriterien, nach denen der Gehalt an Lignin, Cellulose, Wasser und Asche (Rückstand nach Erhitzung auf 700C) aus TG-Kurven abzuleiten sind, wurden erlÄutert und die Befunde mit den Resultaten einer nasschemischen Standardmethode verglichen. DSC-Kurven demonstrieren den chemischen Abbau der unterschiedlich gealterten respektive gewÄsserten Holzproben.

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The authors thank Dr. C. Meucci and Dr. S. D'Urbano, of the Central Institute of Restoration (ICR) Roma, which supplied the waterlogged wood samples. This work was supported by the National Research Council (CNR) of Italy.     

Ethanol Production from Sugarcane Bagasse by Zymomonas mobilis Using Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF) Process

Considerable efforts have been made to utilize agricultural and forest residues as biomass feedstock for the production of second-generation bioethanol as an alternative fuel. Fermentation utilizing strains of Zymomonas mobilis and the use of simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) process has been proposed. Statistical experimental design was used to optimize the conditions of SSF, evaluating solid content, enzymatic load, and cell concentration. The optimum conditions were found to be solid content (30%), enzymatic load (25 filter paper units/g), and cell concentration (4 g/L), resulting in a maximum ethanol concentration of 60 g/L and a volumetric productivity of 1.5 g L^?1?h^?1.     

Sound absorption of tropical woods and their radiation-induced composites

This is a preliminary study on the sound absorption properties of two tropical hardwoods, Light Red Meranti and Ramin, and their wood-polymer composites. Sound absorption is measured using a standing wave apparatus. The samples are of one thickness (7mm) and cut longitudinally. Wood-polymer composites are made by impregnating the samples with methyl methacrylate which is polymerized in situ through γ-irradiation. Both woods and their composites are better sound absorbers at higher sound frequencies. With partial impregnation, the absorption coefficients are improved upon particularly in the region between 1–3 kHz.     

Organization and evaluation of interlaboratory comparison studies among southern african water analysis laboratories

Interlaboratory comparison studies provide a useful "external" supplement to the various "internal" quality-control procedures which must be employed in the water-analysis laboratory in order to maintain a high degree of reliability in the production of analytical results. Such studies have been made regularly for many years by various overseas organizations, and were introduced in South Africa in 1976. Since that time 16 studies have been made, involving more than 40 laboratories. In this paper the various factors involved in the successful organization of interlaboratory comparison studies are discussed, and details are given of the sample-preparation, analysis-instruction and result-reporting procedures used in the southern African studies. Techniques used for the statistical evaluation of the analytical results submitted are described and discussed, for example, methods for the rejection of outliers, measures of accuracy and precision, determination of total error, tests of significance, Greenberg's assessment technique, Madden's ranking technique and Youden's graphical technique. A brief review is given of the studies made to date, along with specific findings and recommendations arising from them. The need for a recognized updated set of standard methods for use by water and wastewater analysis laboratories in southern Africa is highlighted.     

A comparative thermogravimetric study of waterlogged archaeological and sound woods

Waterlogged archaeological woods Pinus pinaster and Fagus sylvatica L. were analyzed by using TG technique. Degradation processes ascribable to the holocellulose decay were evidenced at nearly the same temperature for sound and archaeological samples. The residual matters at 600 and 900 °C of the sound woods are much lower than those of archaeological waterlogged woods in agreement with the presence of inorganic materials encapsulated during the burial into the marine environment. It was proposed a new protocol to rapidly calculate the maximum water content parameter, which is related to the wood degradation state. TG experiments at variable heating rates were performed to obtain kinetic parameters for the degradation process. The Flynn–Wall–Ozawa and Friedman approaches allowed us to calculate the activation energy, which is significantly different for the sound and the archaeological woods.     

Accelerated solvent extraction of fluometuron from selected soils

Accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) is a recently developed extraction technique that is more rapid and produces less waste than do conventional liquid/liquid extraction methods. Optimal conditions were determined for ASE of fluometuron from 2 Weswood clay loam soils. Two solvents (acetonitrile and methanol), 2 temperatures (50 and 100 degrees C), and the number of static cycles (1, 2, and 3) were evaluated. The most efficient and reproducible extractions were obtained when methanol was combined with a 50 degrees C extraction temperature and the static cycle was repeated 3 times. These experiments indicated that existing extraction methods for fluometuron can easily be adapted for ASE.     

Bioconversion of Kraft Paper Mill Sludges to Ethanol by SSF and SSCF

Paper mill sludge is a solid waste material composed of pulp residues and ash generated from pulping and paper making processes. The carbohydrate portion of the sludge has chemical and physical characteristics similar to pulp. Because of its high carbohydrate content and well-dispersed structure, the sludges can be biologically converted to value-added products without pretreatment. In this study, two different types of paper mill sludges, primary sludge and recycle sludge, were evaluated as a feedstock for bioconversion to ethanol. The sludges were first subjected to enzymatic conversion to sugars by commercial cellulase enzymes. The enzymatic conversion was inefficient because of interference by ash in the sludges with the enzymatic reaction. The main cause was that the pH level is dictated by CaCO₃ in ash, which is two units higher than the pH optimum of cellulase. To alleviate this problem, simultaneous saccharification and cofermentation (SSCF) using cellulase (Spezyme CP) and recombinant Escherichia coli (ATCC-55124), and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) using cellulase and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (ATCC-200062) were applied to the sludges without any pretreatment. Ethanol yields of 75–81% of the theoretical maximum were obtained from the SSCF on the basis of total carbohydrates. The yield from the SSF was also found to be in the range of 74–80% on the basis of glucan. The SSCF and SSF proceeded under stable condition with the pH staying near 5.0, close to the optimum for cellulase. Decrease of pH occurred due to carbonic acid and other organic acids formed during fermentation. The ash was partially neutralized by the acids produced from the SSCF and SSF and acted as a buffer to stabilize the pH during fermentation. When the SSF and SSCF were operated in fed-batch mode, the ethanol concentration in the broth increased from 25.5 and 32.6 g/L (single feed) to 45 and 42 g/L, respectively. The ethanol concentration was limited by the tolerance of the microorganism in the case of SSCF. The ethanol yield in fed-batch operation decreased to 68% for SSCF and 70% for SSF. The high-solids condition in the bioreactor appears to create adverse effects on the cellulase reaction.     

Experimental study of woods under external heat flux by autoignition

Piloted ignition of woods has been commonly investigated, which is accelerated by a spark plug. Autoignition is a complex phenomenon that combustible materials are ignited by internal heating, without the spark plug. Compared with piloted ignition, process of autoignition is closer to the development of real fire. Very few studies have focused on the prediction of ignition time and average mass loss rate by autoignition. Therefore, ignition time and mass loss rate on six species of commonly used wood samples, namely pine, beech, cherry, oak, maple, and ash, were studied under external heat flux by autoignition in a cone calorimeter. Three mass loss stages of woods under external heat flux was observed. Empirical models of ignition time and average mass loss rate for woods under external heat flux were developed. These empirical models can be used not only for fire risk evaluation, but also for modeling input and validation.     

A specific case in the classification of woods by FTIR and chemometric: discrimination of Fagales from Malpighiales

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopic data was used to classify wood samples from nine species within the Fagales and Malpighiales using a range of multivariate statistical methods. Taxonomic classification of the family Fagaceae and Betulaceae from Angiosperm Phylogenetic System Classification (APG II System) was successfully performed using supervised pattern recognition techniques. A methodology for wood sample discrimination was developed using both sapwood and heartwood samples. Ten and eight biomarkers emerged from the dataset to discriminate order and family, respectively. In the species studied FTIR in combination with multivariate analysis highlighted significant chemical differences in hemicelluloses, cellulose and guaiacyl (lignin) and shows promise as a suitable approach for wood sample classification.     

Structural investigations of a series of petrified woods of different origin

Since the investigations on petrified wood performed so far have not proved the assumption that the ring structure is coupled to the changes in the crystalline form of silica, attention was paid to other possible reasons. Using small angle X-ray scattering methods we determined the Porod curves and pore size distributions for five different samples of petrified wood, of different origin. We observed clear porosity differences in different samples. In addition, the normal X-ray diffractometric measurements were carried out, which gave a totally uniform image of the crystallographic structure of all the samples. All of them were made of pure α-quartz. The differentiation of rings in dark and bright zones should be put down to the changes in porosity rather than to other factors. The pores seem to be much more concentrated in those ring locations, which correspond to the original dark wood positions in living wood.     

222Rn and 226Ra activity concentrations in groundwaters of southern Poland: new data and selected genetic relations

Since 2008, the authors have been conducting research into ²²²Rn and ²²⁶Ra activity concentrations in shallow circulation groundwaters in southern Poland. Measurements have been performed with a liquid-scintillation method and ultra low-level liquid-scintillation spectrometers α/β Quantulus 1220. The research carried out so far has demonstrated that in the Sudetes groundwaters with high activity concentrations of ²²²Rn and ²²⁶Ra are common. In other studied areas in southern Poland no shallow circulation groundwaters with high radon or radium concentrations have been found yet. The conducted research has demonstrated that the activity concentration of ²²²Rn dissolved in shallow circulation groundwaters in the Sudetes depends chiefly on the amount of radon, which after being released as gas from reservoir rocks is dissolved in waters flowing through these rocks. At the same time, the concentration of ²²²Rn dissolved in some shallow circulation groundwaters in the Carpathians is influenced significantly by the amount of radon produced from the decay of its parent ion ²²⁶Ra²⁺ dissolved in these waters.     

Study of artificially degraded woods simulating natural ageing of archaeological findings

Simulation of waterlogged archaeological woods was carried out by immersion of fir and chestnut wood samples into sea water at different temperatures (room temperature and 40°C). The effects of metals in contact with woods were simulated by inserting in some specimens of the two types of wood copper or iron nails, the most important metals from the archaeological point of view. The effects of this ageing simulation on woods were studied by different characterization methods. At first we have performed gravimetric analyses, controlling the mass increase of immersed wood in function of the time of immersion and the temperature of the bath. Then, thermogravimetry, differential thermal analysis, differential scanning calorimetry in oxygen flux were used. The alteration of wood was observed by means of the peak temperatures of DTA, DTG and DSC variation and by the mass losses observed during heating, evaluated on the basis of the measured thermal data. The samples were woods powder obtained by milling. Complementary characterization of the woods was performed by evaluating the crystallinity of cellulose by means of X-ray powder diffraction. The change in colour of woods during ageing was checked by means of spectrophotometric measurements in the visible region. X-ray fluorescence was used to investigate the penetration of metals into wood samples. An artificial ageing treatment with NaOH and O₃ was also performed. Finally, a comparison between the effects of artificial alteration realised in our specimens and natural degradation observed in archaeological woods, was performed.     

Neutron activation analysis of the ashes of some medicinally used tropical woods

Ashes of medicinally used tropical plant woods collected in the southern part of Nigeria were analyzed for up to 24 elements using Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis techniques (INAA). The plants are:Azadirachta indica, Astonia congensis, Chlorophora excelsa, Antiaris africana andBrachystegia euricoma. Concentrations of 24 major, minor and trace lements were determined. The result of elemental contents were discussed with reference to the medicinal uses of the plant.