Halogenated-2-pyrones in Sonogashira cross-coupling: limitations, optimisation and consequences for GC analysis of Pd-mediated reactions

The Sonogashira couplings of 4-bromo-6-methyl-2-pyrone (5) with phenylacetylene, mediated by Pd(PPh₃)₂Cl₂ in the presence of a CuI co-catalyst, have been investigated in detail. The concentration of Pd dramatically influences the product yield, with lower Pd-loadings favouring higher conversions and purer cross-coupled product. A post reaction time-dependence in product conversion is seen in samples quenched solely on silica-gel (eluted with CH₂Cl₂). The effect is mirrored in reactions employing 4-nitro-bromobenzene (14) and to a lesser extent (E) and (Z)-ethyl 3-iodo-2-propenonate (16) under similar conditions. A more efficient quenching system (using excess dppe) has been developed to enable accurate determinations in product conversions. Alternatively, solvent and base (Et₃N) removal in vacuo, or quench with saturated aqueous ammonium chloride, prevents further turnover in Sonogashira coupling. An ESI-MS study on samples eluted through silica was undertaken to probe the nature of the soluble Pd/Cu species. The Sonogashira cross-coupling of 4-chloro- and 6-chloro-2-pyrone (18 and 20, respectively) has further been investigated. The former undergoes successful coupling, however the latter decomposes in polar aprotic and protic solvents under standard conditions, through a chlorine substitution process, making Pd-mediated reactions problematic.     

Synthesis of non-symmetrical alkynylpyridines by chemoselective Sonogashira cross-coupling reactions

4-Bromo-2,3,5-trichloro-6-iodopyridine was studied as a new substrate in chemoselective Sonogashira reactions. This approach provides an efficient access to non-symmetrical mono-, di-, tri- and pentaalkynylated pyridines in good yields. Selected pentaalkynylated pyridines were studied with regard to their UV/Vis- and emission properties showing moderate to high fluorescence quantum yields.     

Important consequences for gas chromatographic analysis of the Sonogashira cross-coupling reaction

On following the kinetics of the Sonogashira alkynylation reaction of halogenated 2-pyrone 1 with phenylacetylene we have found that turnover continues to occur in sample vials even after quenching by commonly employed silica adsorption methods and product elution with small quantities of CH₂Cl₂. Trace quantities of Pd are carried through the silica plug. Addition of a CH₂Cl₂ solution of 1,2-bis(diphenylphosphino)ethane (dppe) to the quenched sample inhibits the reaction and represents a more reliable method for determining yields and reaction kinetics.     

Copper-free Sonogashira coupling in amine-water solvent mixtures

Extensive study of different amine-water solvent mixtures was carried out for copper free Sonogashira coupling of aryl iodides. The influence of the palladium sources, ligands, amine-water ratio and further additives was also evaluated. Application of sec-butylamine-water mixture proved to be an excellent medium for rapid and efficient coupling of aryl-iodides at ambient temperature in the presence of PdCl₂(PPh₃)₂ as catalyst.     

An efficient protocol for copper-free palladium-catalyzed Sonogashira cross-coupling in aqueous media at low temperatures

A thorough study on copper-free Sonogashira cross-couplings in water was carried out using the palladacycle, [{Pd(μ-Cl){κ²-P,C-P(ⁱPr)₂(OC₆H₃-2-Ph)}}₂] as pre-catalyst with different bases and palladium concentrations. The highly active pre-catalyst imparts good to near quantitative yields using a concentration of 0.25 mol % at 40 °C. This broadly applicable protocol exhibits high tolerance of functional groups and substitution patterns.     

Sonogashira cross-coupling reactions with heteroaryl halides in the presence of a tetraphosphine-palladium catalyst

Heteroaryl halides undergoes cross-couplings with alkynes in good yields in the presence of [PdCl(C₃H₅)]₂/cis,cis,cis-1,2,3,4-tetrakis(diphenylphosphinomethyl)cyclopentane as catalyst. A variety of heteroaryl halides such as pyridines, quinolines, a pyrimidine, an indole, a thiophene, or a thiazole have been used successfully. The reaction also tolerates several alkynes such as phenylacetylene and a range of alk-1-ynols. Furthermore, this catalyst can be used at low loading with some substrates.     

Sonogashira cross-coupling reactions of aryl chlorides with alkynes catalysed by a tetraphosphine-palladium catalyst

A range of aryl chlorides undergoes cross-couplings with alkynes in good yields in the presence of [PdCl(C₃H₅)]₂/cis,cis,cis-1,2,3,4-tetrakis(diphenylphosphinomethyl)cyclopentane as catalyst. A variety of aryl chlorides such as chloroacetophenone, chlorobenzonitrile, chloronitrobenzene, chloroanisole or chlorotoluene have been used successfully. The reaction also tolerates several alkynes such as phenylacetylene, dec-1-yne, ethynylcyclohexene or alk-1-ynols. Furthermore, this catalyst can be used at low loading with some substrates.     

Sequential and domino Sonogashira coupling: Efficient tools for the synthesis of diarylalkynes

The Sonogashira coupling reaction of aryl halides with a masked acetylene, leading to the formation of diarylethynes is reviewed. The process is either run in a sequential coupling-deprotection-coupling manner, or sometimes it is carried out in one-pot, a reaction we coined domino coupling. The procedures were also extended to the synthesis of compound libraries.     

Glycerol as a promoting medium for cross-coupling reactions of diaryl diselenides with vinyl bromides

We described herein the use of glycerol as a novel solvent in the cross-coupling reaction of diaryl diselenides with vinyl bromides catalyzed by CuI. This cross-coupling reaction was performed with diaryl diselenides and (Z)- or (E)-vinyl bromides bearing electron-withdrawing and electron-donating groups, affording the corresponding vinyl selenides in good to excellent yields. The mixture glycerol/catalyst can be directly reused for further cross-coupling reactions.     

Sonogashira cross-coupling reactions catalysed by heterogeneous copper-free Pd-zeolites

A heterogeneous [Pd(NH₃)₄]-NaY catalyst was applied to the copper-free Sonogashira cross-coupling of aryl halides with terminal alkynes. This copper-free heterogeneous Pd-catalyst is efficient, stable and recyclable. Aryl iodides and activated aryl bromides were converted quantitatively using 1 mol % Pd-catalyst to the corresponding diaryl-substituted alkynes within 3 h.     

Palladium-catalyzed Suzuki cross-coupling reactions in a microemulsion

An enhancement of palladium-catalyzed Suzuki cross-coupling reactions between substrates possessing long-chain alkyl or oxyalkyl substituents in two-phase media, in the presence of sodium dodecylsulfate, is shown. Quantitative evaluations of the influence of SDS on the reaction rates were determined.     

An efficient synthesis of cytostatic mono and bis-alkynylpyrimidine derivatives by the Sonogashira cross-coupling reactions of 2,4-diamino-6-iodopyrimidine and 2-amino-4,6-dichloropyrimidine

A series of 6-alkynyl-2,4-diaminopyrimidine derivatives bearing various substituents at alkynyl moiety was prepared by the Sonogashira cross-coupling reaction of 2,4-diamino-6-iodopyrimidine using Pd(PPh₃)₂Cl₂ as catalyst. The same reaction was applied to 2-amino-4,6-dichloropyrimidine. This compound on reaction with 1 equiv. of alkyne gave 6-alkynyl-2-amino-4-chloropyrimidine derivatives as main products, while reaction with three equivalents of alkyne afforded predominantly 4,6-bis-alkynyl-2-aminopyrimidines. Some of the resulting alkynyl pyrimidines showed considerable cytostatic activity.     

Copper and amine free Sonogashira cross-coupling reaction catalyzed by efficient diphosphane-palladium catalyst

The commercially available diphosphane ligand MeO-BIPHEP was first investigated in the palladium-catalyzed Sonogashira reaction in the absence of copper and amine.The coupling of various aryl bromides and aryl chlorides with phenylacetylene gave moderate to excellent yields.     

The first palladium-catalyzed Sonogashira coupling of unactivated secondary alkyl bromides

A palladium-carbene catalyzed Sonogashira coupling of unactivated alkyl bromides with alkyl substituted alkynes is reported. For the first time, unactivated secondary alkyl halides were successfully employed in Sonogashira reactions.     

Hydrazinoaminocarbene–palladium complexes as easily accessible and convenient catalysts for copper-free Sonogashira reactions

Two easily accessible hydrazinoaminocarbene complexes of Pd(II) are shown to be efficient catalysts for copper-free Sonogashira cross-couplings of a variety of aryl iodides with aryl- and alkylalkynes under mild conditions, in ethanol as the solvent and using potassium carbonate as the base. The reactions were carried out with 0.05 mol % of the catalysts which demonstrated exceptional stability in the solid state and in ethanol. Protection from air is not needed. Disubstituted acetylenes were synthesized by the general procedure on up to a gram scale and the yields were 80–98%.     

Facile synthesis of palladium nanoclusters and their catalytic activity in Sonogashira coupling reactions

This work reports a facile synthesis of palladium nanoclusters (PdNCs) in MeCN/MeOH mixture without any stabilizer. The PdNCs were found to be effective catalysts for copper-free, amine-free and ligand-free Songashira coupling reactions under ambient conditions.     

Choline chloride/CuCl as an effective homogeneous catalyst for palladium-free Sonogashira cross-coupling reactions

Choline chloride–CuCl (ChCl–CuCl) has been employed as an efficient catalytic system in the palladium-free Sonogashira-type cross-coupling reactions of phenylacetylene with a variety of aryl halides. Choline chloride, as an effective ligand and a quaternary ammonium salt, demonstrated an efficient stabilizing effect on the Cu(I) species during the reaction. This homogeneous catalytic system is attractive in view of its ease of application and low cost.     

Synthesis of biphenylamines via Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling reactions

A small library of meta- and para-biphenylamines substituted by various alkyl, alkoxy, phenoxy, or halogeno groups on their aromatic rings was synthesized via Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling between bromoanilines and arylboronic acids using palladium catalysts. The experimental conditions were carefully adjusted to accommodate a wide range of substituents, in terms of electron-withdrawing or -donating ability and steric bulk. In some cases, protection and deprotection of the amine function via its trifluoroacetamide were added to the reaction sequence in order to facilitate the cross-coupling step.     

An ambient temperature Sonogashira cross-coupling protocol using 4-aminobenzoic acid as promoter under copper and amine free conditions

A new methodology has been developed based on Pd(OAc)₂ and 4-aminobenzoic acid catalytic system for the Sonogashira cross-coupling reaction at ambient temperature under copper and amine free conditions. The newly developed catalytic system is conveniently applicable to the aryl iodides and terminal acetylenes. The catalytic system is much efficient because of the use of easily available and low cost additive.     

Sonogashira cross-coupling in iodo-containing 2-aryloxazolines

Aryloxazolines represents potential building blocks in the synthesis of precursors of ESIPT-active sensors. Here we describe the Sonogashira cross-coupling reaction between iodo-containing 2-aryloxazolines and terminal alkynes. The reaction occurs under mild conditions and a range of alkynes was employed leading the formation of a small library of functionalized aryloxazolines.