Studies on thermionic ionisation detection in comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography

This study explores the application of specific thermionic ionisation detection in comprehensive 2-D GC (GC x GC) and represents the first report of GC x GC with nitrogen phosphorus detection (GC x GC-NPD). Of particular interest is the performance of the NPD with respect to peak parameters of asymmetry and sensitivity. Since GC x GC produces much narrower peaks than obtained with fast GC (e.g. 100 ms vs. <1 s) the effect of detector response time and any lack of symmetry arising from the detection step is important if peak separation (resolution) is to be maintained. It was observed that detector gas flows had a significant impact on peak asymmetry and peak magnitude, and that optimisation of the detector was critical, particularly for complex sample analysis by GC x GC-NPD. Peak asymmetries ranging from As = 1.8 to 8.0 were observed under different conditions of detector gas flows. Comparison of GC x GC-NPD with GC x GC-flame ionisation detection (FID) showed the former to be approximately 20 times more sensitive for the detection of nitrogen-containing methoxypyrazines analytes, and GC x GC-NPD had a larger linear detection range compared to GC x GC-FID. Furthermore, comparison of GC x GC-NPD and GC x GC-TOFMS chromatograms for the analysis of coffee head-space demonstrated the benefits of selective detection, ultimately realised in a comparatively simplified contour plot.     

全二维气相色谱-飞行时间质谱联用技术分析重馏分油中芳烃组成

通过对升温速度、二维补偿温度、调制周期等关键实验参数的优化,建立了全二维气相色谱-飞行时间质谱(GC×GC-TOF MS)分析重馏分油中芳烃组分的方法,得到了重馏分油芳烃组分按环数分布的二维点阵图。根据谱库检索、标准化合物对照及文献报道,对重馏分油芳烃组分中菲、甲基菲及芘、苯并蒽等常见多环芳烃(PAH)进行了准确定性,并将该方法应用到重馏分油加氢处理工艺研究中,对菲、芘的加氢处理产物进行了定性分析。该研究为重馏分油芳烃组分的准确定性提供了新的技术手段,为加深对油品加氢规律的认识提供了技术支持。全二维气相色谱与普通一维色谱对比,在重馏分油的芳烃组分分析上体现了极大优势。     

The application of two total transfer valve modulators for comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography of volatile organic compounds

Rotary and diaphragm 6-port 2-position valves have been evaluated as modulators for comprehensive GC. A total transfer methodology was used such that all analyte materials from the primary column were passed to the second separating column. The transfer methodology used repeated short periods of stop flow, but retained good primary column performance since primary carrier flow was partially maintained as pressure equilibrated along the length of the first column. Highly resolved separations of complex samples such as petrol and essential oils were achieved with equivalent performance (in terms of second column resolution) to thermal modulation with flame ionisation detection (FID). The valve modulators tested could outperform thermal modulators for very highly volatile organic species since the modulation process was insensitive to analyte vapour pressure. The diaphragm valve tested showed the best performance and was incorporated with a thermal desorption system to provide a high sensitivity separation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in air with LODs for individual VOCs of 2-4 pptV for a 1-L air sample.     

Universal and discriminative detection using a miniaturized pulsed discharge detector in comprehensive two-dimensional GC

A miniaturized pulsed discharge detector (Mini-PDD) has been successfully demonstrated for comprehensive 2-D GC (GC x GC) analysis of pyrolysis gasoline and the pyrolysis GC x GC analysis of a polyethylene copolymer. The detector cell volume of the Mini-PDD is reduced to 25% of the Valco plug-in PDD D-3. An n-C11 peak width at base is 96 ms for the Mini-PDD, about 23% larger than a peak width of 78 ms detected by a flame ionization detector (FID). The Mini-PDD has sufficient response time for most GC x GC applications. When Mini-PDD is operated in helium photoionization mode (Mini He-PDD), it is a universal detector for both inorganic and organic compounds. This is especially useful when detection of water is needed in GC x GC applications. When krypton is doped in the helium discharge gas (Mini Kr-PDD), it can suppress signals of compounds having higher ionization potentials and enhance relative signal intensities of aromatic compounds. The determination of aliphatic to aromatic hydrocarbon ratios is essential to the operation of petroleum crackers. Comparison of the signal from two modes of the Mini-PDD is a simple and fast way to verify the location of aromatics in comprehensive 2-D gas chromatograms.     

Elucidation of fatty acid profiles in vegetable oils exploiting group-type patterning and enhanced sensitivity of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography

The present research is focused on the use of comprehensive 2-D GC (GCxGC) for the thorough elucidation of fatty acid (FA) profiles contained in vegetable oils; the samples analysed consisted of extra-virgin olive oil and refined hazelnut oil. The enhanced sensitivity and the formation of group-type patterns provided by GCxGC enabled the identification and quantification of both well-known and rather unexpected FAs contained in the lipid matrices. Peak assignment was, in most cases, supported by using pure standard compounds. Of particular interest was the identification of a series of odd-numbered FAs in both samples. The results attained to demonstrate the usefulness of GCxGC also for the analysis of supposedly low-complex samples.     

Analysis of sulfur-containing compounds in crude oils by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with sulfur chemiluminescence detection

This paper reports an analytical method for separating, identifying, and quantifying sulfur-containing compounds in crude oil fraction (IBP-360 degrees C) samples based on comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with a sulfur chemiluminescence detector. Various sulfur-containing compounds and their groups were analyzed with one direct injection. 3620 peaks were detected including 1722 thiols/thioethers/ disulfides/1-ring thiophenes, 953 benzothiophenes, 704 dibenzothiophenes, and 241 benzonaphthothiophenes. The target sulfur compounds and their groups were identified based on the group separation feature and structured retention of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography as well as standard substances. The quantitative analysis of major sulfur-containing compounds and total sulfur was based on the linear response of the sulfur chemiluminescence detector using the internal standard method. The sulfur contents of target sulfur compounds and their groups in 4 crude oil fractions were also determined. The recoveries for standard sulfur-containing compounds were in the range of 90-102%. The quantitative result of total sulfur in the Oman crude oil fraction sample was compared with those from ASTM D 4294 standard method (total S by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry), the relative deviation (RD%) was 4.2% and the precision of the method satisfactory.     

Qualitative and quantitative analysis of pyrolysis oil by gas chromatography with flame ionization detection and comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Pyrolysis oils have attracted a lot of interest, as they are liquid energy carriers and general sources of chemicals. In this work, gas chromatography with flame ionization detector (GC-FID) and two-dimensional gas chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC×GC-TOFMS) techniques were used to provide both qualitative and quantitative results of the analysis of three different pyrolysis oils. The chromatographic methods and parameters were optimized and solvent choice and separation restrictions are discussed. Pyrolysis oil samples were diluted in suitable organic solvent and were analyzed by GC×GC-TOFMS. An average of 300 compounds were detected and identified in all three samples using the ChromaToF (Leco) software. The deconvoluted spectra were compared with the NIST software library for correct matching. Group type classification was performed by use of the ChromaToF software. The quantification of 11 selected compounds was performed by means of a multiple-point external calibration curve. Afterwards, the pyrolysis oils were extracted with water, and the aqueous phase was analyzed both by GC-FID and, after proper change of solvent, by GC×GC-TOFMS. As previously, the selected compounds were quantified by both techniques, by means of multiple point external calibration curves. The parameters of the calibration curves were calculated by weighted linear regression analysis. The limit of detection, limit of quantitation and linearity range for each standard compound with each method are presented. The potency of GC×GC-TOFMS for an efficient mapping of the pyrolysis oil is undisputable, and the possibility of using it for quantification as well has been demonstrated. On the other hand, the GC-FID analysis provides reliable results that allow for a rapid screening of the pyrolysis oil. To the best of our knowledge, very few papers have been reported with quantification attempts on pyrolysis oil samples using GC×GC-TOFMS most of which make use of the internal standard method. This work provides the ground for further analysis of pyrolysis oils of diverse sources for a rational design of both their production and utilization process.     

Chemical characterization of aromatic compounds in extra heavy gas oil by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC×GC-TOFMS) was used for the characterization of aromatic compounds present in extra heavy gas oil (EHGO) from Brazil. Individual identification of EHGO compounds was successfully achieved in addition to group-type separation on the chromatographic plane. Many aromatic hydrocarbons, especially polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and sulfur compounds, were detected and identified, such as chrysenes, phenanthrenes, perylenes, benzonaphthothiophenes and alkylbenzonaphthothiophenes. In addition, triaromatic steroids, methyl-triaromatic steroids, tetrahydrochrysenes and tetraromatic pentacyclic compounds were present in the EHGO aromatic fractions. Considering the roof-tile effect observed for many of these compound classes and the high number of individual compounds identified, GC×GC-TOFMS is an excellent technique to characterize the molecular composition of the aromatic fraction from EHGO samples. Moreover, data processing allowed the quantification of aromatic compounds, in class and individually, using external standards. EHGO data were obtained in μgg(-1), e.g., benzo[a]pyrene were in the range 351 to 1164μgg(-1). Thus, GC×GC-TOFMS was successfully applied in EHGO quantitative analysis.     

Performance evaluation of a rapid-scanning quadrupole mass spectrometer in the comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography analysis of pesticides in water

The performance of a novel rapid-scanning (20,000 amu/s) quadrupole mass spectrometer (qMS) has been evaluated in the comprehensive 2-D gas chromatography (GC×GC) analysis of pesticides contained in water. Analyte extraction was performed by using direct solid-phase microextraction (SPME). The MS system was operated using a rather wide m/z 50-450 mass range and a 33 Hz spectral production rate, a frequency which was found sufficient for reliable quantification. The qMS performance was evaluated considering: (i) number of data points per peak, (ii) mass spectral quality, (iii) extent of peak skewing, and (iv) consistency of retention times. Seven-point calibration curves (external calibration) were constructed for 28 pesticides over the limit of quantification range of 100 μg/L (1, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 μg/L). The solid-phase microextraction-GC×GC-qMS method was validated by calculating limits of detection and quantification, intraday peak area precision, accuracy, and intraday retention-time precision. A series of tap water samples were subjected to analysis, fortunately giving negative results.     

催化柴油中含氮化合物类型分布的气相色谱分析方法

建立了催化柴油馏分中各种含氮化合物类型分布的气相色谱-氮化学发光检测分析方法,考察了色谱条件对各种含氮化合物分离的影响。采用Al2O3柱富集催化柴油中的含氮化合物,辅以气相色谱-质谱检测器以及部分含氮化合物标准样品对某催化柴油中的80多个含氮化合物进行了定性(或归类)。以N,N-二甲基苯胺、三丁基胺、喹啉、吲哚、咔唑作为标准样品,考察了各种含氮化合物在氮化学发光检测器上的响应,以吲哚为参照,各含氮化合物的相对响应因子为0.97～1.07,表明含氮化合物的响应与其类型无关。氮的质量浓度在1.0～600 mg/L范围内,含氮化合物的峰面积与质量浓度有良好的线性响应,线性相关系数达0.998。催化柴油中几种含氮化合物(吲哚、C2-吲哚、咔唑、1-甲基咔唑、1,8-二甲基咔唑)含量测定值的相对标准偏差均小于8%。当信噪比(S/N)为3时,测得咔唑氮的检出限为1.0 mg/L。苯胺、喹啉、吲哚、咔唑等4种含氮化合物的加标回收率为89.5%～99.8%。该方法可用于不同来源和不同加工工艺的柴油馏分中各种含氮化合物类型分布的研究。     

Fast miniaturised sample preparation for the screening and comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatographic determination of polychlorinated biphenyls in sludge

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in sludge are usually extracted by a technique such as Soxhlet with subsequent fractionation prior to long GC runs using GC-ECD or GC-HRMS. In this study, the extraction of selected chlorinated biphenyls (CBs) from a spiked sludge sample by three rapid techniques, i.e. ultrasonic (USE), pressurised-liquid (PLE), and microwave-assisted (MAE) extraction using a domestic microwave, was studied, with subsequent direct GC-ECD, GC-MS, or GC x GC-microECD analysis of the extracts. The main goal was to select an appropriate, and miniaturised, extraction method after only a brief optimisation and demonstrate the power of GC x GC analysis of dirty extracts. For PLE similar CB recoveries were found when extracting with either n-hexane or n-hexane/acetone (1/1). For USE and MAE, n-hexane/acetone (1/1) was the preferred extraction solvent. USE gave the best recoveries (80-95%; except 130% for CB 105). The only clean-up needed prior to GC-MS or GC x GC-gECD analysis was the removal of sulphur-containing compounds. GC-ECD was not suitable for these dirty extracts. The lowest LODs for the CBs (20 fg or 0.1 ng/g sludge) were found when combining USE and GC x GC-microECD, because of the powerful extraction, high separation power and excellent detectability provided by this technique.     

全二维气相色谱在石油地质样品分析中的应用进展

对石油地质样品的化学组成进行全面准确的剖析,可以获得丰富的地球化学信息,为油气勘探工作提供科学依据。然而,该类样品除了组成复杂之外,还易受到各种物理（如蒸发、乳化、扩散、溶解和吸附）、化学（如光降解）和生物（如微生物降解）过程的影响。这些特点给样品的分析研究工作带来了极大的困难,传统的一维气相色谱/质谱技术很难对其进行理想的分离。全二维气相色谱（GC×GC）作为新发展起来的一种分离技术,在复杂样品分析方面具有独特的优势,虽然在石油地质样品分析中的应用相对较晚,但也日益受到关注。本文主要综述了近5年来GC×GC在石油地质方面国内外的研究进展以及存在的主要问题,并对今后的研究进行了展望。     

Simultaneous detection of fluquinconazole and flusilazole in lettuce using gas chromatography with a nitrogen phosphorus detector: decline patterns at two different locations

Method validations in addition to decline patterns of fluquinconazole and flusilazole in lettuce grown under greenhouse conditions at two different locations were investigated. Following the application of fluquinconazole and flusilazole at a dose rate of 20 mL/20 L water, lettuce samples were collected randomly for up to 7 days post‐application, and simultaneously extracted with acetone, purified through solid‐phase extraction, analyzed via gas chromatography with a nitrogen phosphorus detector, and confirmed through gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. The linearity was excellent, with determination coefficients (R²) between 0.9999 and 1.0. The method was validated in triplicate at two different spiking levels (0.2 and 1.0 mg/kg) with satisfactory recoveries between 75.7 and 97.9% and relative standard deviations of <9. The limit of quantification was 0.01 mg/kg. Both analytes declined very quickly, as can be seen from the short half‐life time of <4 days. Statistical analysis revealed significant differences between residues at different days of sampling, except at 7 days post‐application (triple application). At that point, the decline patterns of fluquinconazole and flusilazole were independent of application rate, location, temperature and humidity. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

气流吹扫-注射器微萃取-全二维气相色谱法用于原油组分的表征

建立了气流吹扫-注射器微萃取（GP-MSE）与全二维气相色谱/飞行时间质谱（GC×GC/TOFMS）联用分析原油成分的方法。为了找到适用于原油样品分析的GP-MSE条件,用饱和烃混合标准溶液和15种芳烃的混合标准溶液进行了条件优化,得到的最佳条件如下:取样量5 mg、萃取溶剂正己烷20 μ L、载气流速2 mL/min、加热时间3 min、加热温度300 ℃、冷凝温度-2 ℃。处理后的样品在全二维色谱/飞行时间质谱上进样分析,得到了满意结果。方法的检出限为34~93 μg/L,线性相关系数（R²）>0.99,对50种烃类化合物的回收率在82.0%~107.3%之间,相对标准偏差<10%（n=5）。结果表明GP-MSE-GC×GC/TOFMS法是一种新型绿色、高效、灵敏的分析方法,非常适合原油中挥发性与半挥发性组分的分析。     

Speciation of nitrogen-containing compounds in diesel fuel by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography

Nitrogen-containing compounds in diesel fuel have been speciated by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with nitrogen chemiluminescence detector (GC x GC-NCD). The speciation of nitrogen-containing compounds in diesel is difficult because of low concentration and complexity. The advantages of GC x GC are improved resolution and enhanced sensitivity. GC x GC-NCD can achieve the type and class separation of nitrogen-containing compounds with an appropriate separation column combination. Diesel contains both neutral (indoles and carbazoles) and basic (pyridines and quinolines) nitrogen-containing compounds. Relative concentrations of each class as well as each carbon number family can be quantified by integrating their peak volumes. This study demonstrates the capability of GC x GC-NCD for speciation of nitrogen-containing compound classes.     

Analysis of organic compounds of water-in-crude oil emulsions separated by microwave heating using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography and time-of-flight mass spectrometry

In this work the higher peak capacity and resolution of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GCxGC) has been successfully applied, for the first time, to tentatively identify several polar organic compounds of organic extracts of aqueous phases resulting from microwave demulsification process of water-in-crude oil emulsions. Results have shown that higher temperatures and longer exposure time to microwave irradiation produced water phases with a wider variety of polar organic compounds. The microwave process showed to be suitable for the extraction of several polar compounds classes of petroleum. The proposed microwave extraction method and GCxGC identification of polar compounds of petroleum samples are of practical interest for the petrochemical industry due to corrosion and related problems associated with these polar compounds in refinery equipments. The GCxGC/time-of-flight MS technique shows to be very important in the total separation of different classes of compounds and allows the identification of many compounds in these classes.     

Challenge in the speciation of nitrogen-containing compounds in heavy petroleum fractions by high temperature comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography

Extending the knowledge related to nitrogen-containing compounds presents an important interest for the petroleum industry due to their implication in atmosphere pollution as well as their inhibitive or refractive behaviour towards hydroprocessing. Most of the nitrogenated species are concentrated in heavy petroleum cuts. As no analytical method is resolutive enough for these heavy cuts, particularly regarding nitrogen-containing compounds, a new approach is needed. For this reason, this study focuses on the development of a GC×GC technique, through the hyphenation of a specific NCD detector with a GC×GC system at high temperature. The performances of highly polar thermally stable stationary phases, in particular those composed of promising ionic liquids, were monitored in normal and reversed configurations. Subsequently, after the extraction of neutral or basic compounds by adsorption on an ion-exchange resin, a first quantitative determination was attempted for a straight-run and a direct coal liquefaction vacuum gas oils. This study led to a better understanding of the behaviour of highly aromatic N-compounds by 2D-GC including an ionic liquid phase as well as a deeper N-characterization of heavy petroleum fractions.     

Amino acid analysis by using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography

The separation characteristics of alkylchloroformate-derivatised amino acids (AAs) by using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC×GC) is reported. The use of a low-polarity/polar column set did not provide as good a separation performance as that achieved with a polar/non-polar column set, where the latter appeared to provide less correlation over the separation space. The degree of component correlation in each column set was estimated by using the correlation coefficient (r²; for ¹t_R and ²t_R data) with the low-polarity/polar and polar/low-polarity sets returning correlation coefficients of 0.86, and 0.00 respectively, under the respective conditions employed for the experiments. The 1.5-m non-polar ²D column (0.1-mm ID; 0.1-m film thickness) gave peak halfwidths of the order of 50–80 ms. Linearity of detection was good, over a three order of magnitude concentration range, with typical lower detection limit of ca. 0.01 mg L^–1, compared with 0.5 mg L^–1 for normal GC operation with splitless injection. The method was demonstrated for analysis of AAs in a range of food and beverage products, including wine, beer and honey. The major AA in these samples was proline. The Heineken beer sample had a relatively more complex and more abundant AA content compared with the other beer sample. The wine and honey samples also gave a range of AA compounds. Repetition of the sample preparation/analysis procedure for the honey sample gave acceptable reproducibility for individual AAs.     

Chemometric analysis of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography data using cryogenic modulation

The two-dimensional (2D) data structure generated under a high resolution GC×GC system with a small number of samplings taken across the first dimension is evaluated for the purpose of the application of chemometric deconvolution methods. Chemometric techniques such as generalized rank annihilation method (GRAM) place high demands on the reproducibility of chromatographic experiments. For GRAM to be employed for GC×GC data interpretation, it is critical that the separation method provides data with a bilinear structure; the peak-shape and retention times on both columns must be reproducible. With a limited number of samplings across a ¹D (first dimension) peak (e.g. four to six samplings) repeatability of the pattern of the modulated peaks (controlled by the modulation phase) becomes important in producing a bilinear data structure. Reproducibility of modulation phase can be affected by both reliability of the modulation period and reproducibility of the retention time of the peak on the first column (which arises from oven temperature and carrier flow rate stability). Evaluation of within-run and run-to-run retention time reproducibility (retention time uncertainty) on both columns, and modulation phase reproducibility using a modulated cryogenic system for a pair of overlapping components (fatty acid methyl esters) was undertaken. An investigation of the quality of data to permit quantification of each component by using GRAM deconvolution, was also conducted. Less than 4% run-to-run retention time uncertainty was obtained on column 1 and less than 9% run-to-run and within-run retention time uncertainty was obtained on column 2, where these R.S.D. measures are reported normalised to peak widths on each respective dimension. The R.S.D. of duplicate quantification results by GRAM ranged from 2 to 26% although the average quantification error using GRAM was less than 5%.     

Investigation of sulphur compounds in coal tar using monodimensional and comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography

Coal is a non renewable fossil fuel, used mainly as a source of electrical energy and in the production of coke. It is subjected to thermal treatment, pyrolysis, which produces coke as a main product, in addition to a condensed liquid by-product, called tar. Tar is a complex mixture of organic compounds which contains different chemical classes, presenting aromatic and sulphur heterocyclic compounds. In general, identification of these compounds requires steps of isolation and fractionation, mainly due to co-elution of these compounds with polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). The objective of this work is to characterize the sulphur compounds present in the coal tar obtained via pyrolysis, using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometry detector (GC×GC/TOFMS). Coal samples from the State of Paraná, Brazil were subjected to laboratorial scale pyrolysis. Several experimental conditions were tested, such as sample weight (5, 10 and 15g), heating ramp (10, 25 and 100°C/min) and final temperature (500, 700 and 900°C). Samples were analyzed by one dimensional gas chromatography (1D-GC) coupled to a quadrupole mass spectrometry detector (GC/qMS) and two-dimensional gas chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometry detector (GC×GC/TOFMS). The higher amount of sulphur compounds was obtained at a final temperature of 700°C and a heating ramp of 100°C/min. The main classes observed in the color plot were thiophenes, benzothiophenes and alkylated dibenzothiophenes. GC×GC/TOFMS allowed the identification of the greater number of compounds and the separation of several sulphur compounds from one another. Moreover, separation of sulphur compounds from polyaromatic hydrocarbons and phenols was achieved, which was not possible by 1D-GC. Comparing GC×GC/TOFMS and 1D-GC (SIM mode) also showed that 1D-GC, one of the most employed quantification tools for sulphur compounds, can be misleading for detection, identification and quantification, as the number of isomers of sulphur compounds found was greater than theoretically possible.