Visualization and analysis of muzzle flow fields using the Background-Oriented Schlieren technique

Several experimental and numerical studies on muzzle blast and flow fields have been performed. However, due to the extremely short duration and the spatiotemporal evolution of these flows, experimental quantitative techniques are limited. As a consequence, the number of validated numerical calculations is limited as well. On the other hand, despite the development of computer models that have succeeded in predicting the measured pressure and velocity, they show unrealistic temperatures and densities. Therefore, temperature and/or density measurements are required to validate these codes, thus the motivation of this research. The present paper focuses on the development of a density-sensitive and non-intrusive measurement technique and the implementation of a quantitative flow visualization method based on Background-Oriented Schlieren (BOS) combined with a high-speed camera. In BOS, the experimental setup of conventional Schlieren (mirrors, lenses, and knife-edge) is replaced by a background pattern and a single digital camera. The muzzle flow fields and the flow field around a 5.56-mm projectile in flight were successfully visualized. Indeed, the implemented experimental high-speed BOS setup has demonstrated its ability to capture clearly the salient features of the precursor and the propellant gas flow fields and their interactions. The captured structures such as vortex, barrel shock, Mach disk, and blast wave show a good agreement with that issued from a realized conventional Schlieren setup and the bibliography, confirming the BOS capability to visualize complex density flow fields.     

Reconstruction of the density field using the Colored Background Oriented Schlieren Technique (CBOS)

In this paper the improved Background Oriented Schlieren technique called CBOS (Colored Background Oriented Schlieren) is described and used to reconstruct density fields of three-dimensional flows. The Background Oriented Schlieren technique (BOS) allows to measure the light deflection caused by density gradients in a compressible flow. For this purpose the local image displacements of the image of a background pattern observed through the flow is used. In order to increase the performance of the conventional Background Oriented Schlieren technique, the monochromatic background is replaced by a colored dot pattern. The different colors are treated separately using suitable correlation algorithms. Therefore, the accuracy and the spatial resolution can be increased. A tomographic reconstruction method is then used to reconstruct the density field in three-dimensional flows from CBOS measurements.     

基于BOS的超声速流场瞬态密度场的可视化

瞬态密度场的可视化对于超声速流场复杂流动机理研究有着重要的参考价值.设计了基于脉冲激光照明的瞬态密度场可视化系统,针对非对称尖锥模型在Ф=120 mm激波风洞开展了双方向密度场可视化应用研究,获得了Ma=6条件下激波流场清晰的瞬态和长曝光背景纹影图像.研究表明,瞬态背景纹影图像曝光时间为10 ns,能够有效"冻结"超声...     

基于背景纹影波前传感技术的气动光学波前重构与校正

背景纹影波前传感(backgroud oriented schlieren based wavefront sensing, BOS-WS) 是利用背景纹影技术测量光学波前二维分布的新型实验手段, 可定量测量光线通过干扰场后产生的光学畸变并给出光程差. 为了利用BOS-WS技术获得光线因气动光学效应产生的畸变信息, 并通过已知畸变信息还原原始图像, 进而探索一种新型的超声速成像制导方法, 本文通过理论分析, 验证了利用背景纹影技术测量光学波前的方法, 探索了利用已知波前信息预测畸变位移场以及利用已知位移场进行波前重构的计算方法. 通过数值模拟比较了一阶梯形积分算法和Southwell方法在波前重构上的误差大小和结果合理性, 并通过误差分析证明了Southwell方法更加精确合理. 通过蜡烛火焰上方流场畸变实验和透镜对波前的扰动实验, 创造性地探索了利用已知光学光程差还原畸变位移场及用其校正畸变图像的方法, 并通过验证性实验证明了校正方法的有效性.     

叠栅偏折层析测量火焰温度和密度分布

提出将带滤波的叠栅偏折层析系统用于存在化学反应的多组分复杂气体流场的诊断.以丙烷的燃烧火焰为例,实验提取出叠栅条纹的偏移量并转换为偏折角,然后基于偏折层析的滤波反投影算法重建出场的折射率分布,给出了两种不同情况下给定截面的三维温度和密度分布.对比发现,对存在化学反应的多组分火焰流场不能基于假设研究对象是空气流场,而必须对火焰流场本身发生的化学反应及生成物进行考虑,混合流场的等效G-D常量和分子量必须根据不同场的具体组分情况进行修正.     

Algebraic tomographic reconstruction of two-dimensional gas temperature based on tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy

Based on tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy, the combustion gas temperature distribution was reconstructed using the algebraic iterative reconstruction technique. The effects of the projected angle and number of rays on the temperature reconstruction results for both fan beam and parallel beam were investigated. The flow field information was shown in detail. The reconstruction quality increased with increased ray number for both parallel- and fan-beam projections. The trend tended to be smooth when the total number of beams exceeded 100. A virtual ray method combined with the reconstruction algorithms was proposed. The virtual ray method is effective to improve the accuracy of reconstruction results for the symmetric and non-axisymmetric temperature distributions. Moreover, the temperature reconstruction of an infrared gas-field furnace is demonstrated, showing the virtual ray method can be applied to the combustion diagnostics.     

高超声速流场成像质量特性及校正方法

光学成像制导飞行器在大气层中以高超声速飞行时，其成像窗口附近强压缩流场的气动光学效应会导致成像过程出现抖动、偏移和模糊，影响制导精度.为研究该问题，搭建了基于高超声速（Ma = 6.0）炮风洞的气动光学地面模拟平台.利用高速摄像机获取了多种喷流压比状态下光学头罩成像图片，研究了成像特性.基于背景纹影技术（background oriented schlieren，BOS）直接获取气动光学畸变的点扩散函数信息，结合Wiener滤波方法对地面模拟平台获取的成像畸变结果进行了校正，并结合灰度分布、峰值信噪比（peak signal-to-noise ratio，PSNR）和结构相似度（structural similarity，SSIM）对校正结果进行了定性和定量评价.成像结果表明，头罩无冷却喷流时成像质量最好，在压力匹配附近头罩成像质量相对于欠压喷流和过压喷流成像质量较好.图像校正结果表明，风洞运行过程中采集的时间序列图像在校正之后所对应的灰度分布情况、PSNR和SSIM都得到提高.      

Three-dimensional finite-difference lattice Boltzmann model and its application to inviscid compressible flows with shock waves

In this paper, a three-dimensional (3D) finite-difference lattice Boltzmann model for simulating compressible flows with shock waves is developed in the framework of the double-distribution-function approach. In the model, a density distribution function is adopted to model the flow field, while a total energy distribution function is adopted to model the temperature field. The discrete equilibrium density and total energy distribution functions are derived from the Hermite expansions of the continuous equilibrium distribution functions. The discrete velocity set is obtained by choosing the abscissae of a suitable Gauss–Hermite quadrature with sufficient accuracy. In order to capture the shock waves in compressible flows and improve the numerical accuracy and stability, an implicit–explicit finite-difference numerical technique based on the total variation diminishing flux limitation is introduced to solve the discrete kinetic equations. The model is tested by numerical simulations of some typical compressible flows with shock waves ranging from 1D to 3D. The numerical results are found to be in good agreement with the analytical solutions and/or other numerical results reported in the literature.     

一种改进的代数迭代重建技术及其在三维温度场再现中的应用

提出了一种改进的代数迭代重建技术，通过计算机数值模拟，考查了其重建精度与投影方向数、迭代次数的关系。结果表明，这种技术与代数迭代法（ＡＲＴ）比较，具有收敛速率快、重建精度高的优点。把这种技术应用于一个三维温度场的重建，再现了其三维温度分布。     

声学CT复杂温度场重建研究

为提高声学CT复杂温度场重建能力,提出一种利用Markov径向基函数逼近和Tikhonov正则化的温度场重建算法,简称MTR算法。该算法首先用Markov径向基函数的线性组合,逼近介质中的复杂声速场分布,然后利用介质中多路径声波传播时间和Tikhonov正则化法,求解声速场分布,进而利用声速与温度的关系获得温度分布。对单热点、三热点和五热点温度场模型进行了仿真重建,结果表明MTR算法热点定位精度高,重建误差小。开发了声学CT温度场重建实验系统,用电加热器在内装1200 kg大豆的实验粮仓中形成热点,MTR重建结果能正确反映热点位置,热点温度重建误差1.3%。可见,MTR算法复杂温度场重建能力强,可望用于实际储粮温度分布监测。      

基于多峰高斯拟合的分布式拉曼测温系统设计与应用

针对温感区域长度小于空间分辨率导致温度测量不准确的问题,提出一种多点温度校正方案,并介绍了一种可应用于中小尺度剖面温度分布测量的装置和方法。采用基于多峰高斯拟合的方案,实现了多个测量不准确温度点的同时校正,提高了系统的温度准确度,设计了分布式拉曼测温系统样机,通过将光纤部分缠绕在PPR管上实现了中小尺度剖面温度分布测量。实验装置使2 m和1.5 m温感区域的测量准确度提高到1℃;测得冬季黄河万家寨水库冰盖厚度约为42.33 cm,与人工测量结果相差约为1.67 cm;测得36 m深河水剖面的温度约在0.32℃～0.90℃范围内波动。实验结果表明,采用该分布式拉曼测温系统能够在野外大范围监测河道流水剖面的温度分布。     

The hydrothermal wave of large-Prandtl-number fluid in a shallow cavity

The hydrothermal wave was investigated numerically for large-Prandtl-number fluid (Pr = 105.6) in a shallow cavity with different heated sidewalls. The traveling wave appears and propagates in the direction opposite to the surface flow (upstream) in the case of zero gravity when the applied temperature difference grows and over the critical value. The phase relationships of the disturbed velocity, temperature and pressure demonstrate that the traveling wave is driven by the disturbed temperature, which is named hydrothermal wave. The hydrothermal wave is so weak that the oscillatory flow field and temperature distribution can hardly be observed in the liquid layer. The exciting mechanism of hydrothermal wave is analyzed and discussed in the present paper.     

一种适用于对称截面的主动式热斗篷的研究

直接求解导热方程对具有自适应热源的可控式热隐身技术进行数值研究，探索热流控制方法及隐身效果，推导出均匀背景下二维对称截面热斗篷热隐身区域自适应热源分布的通解.仿真结果表明：对于任意对称截面斗篷，自适应热源都能使得扰动后的温度场很好地恢复到背景温度场，达到热隐身的目的.     

三维复杂温度场高精度声学测量方法

声学温度场检测技术通过多路径声波传播时间数据,反演被测区域的温度分布。提供了一种高精度的三维复杂温度场的声学测量方法。首先从射线声学角度给出了三维非均匀温度场中声波传播路径的数学模型。在此基础上,将三维温度场的重建问题转化为声波传播路径的求解和温度场的反演问题,建立了基于多项式修正径向基函数(RBF-PR)和改进的Tikhonov正则化三维温度场重建算法。采用两种典型的炉膛三维温度场模型,在信噪比SNR=35 dB下进行了数值模拟,分析了声波传播路径在非均匀温度场中的弯曲特性、算法的重建质量和抗噪性,同时进行了实际炉膛内二维温度场的重建。结果表明了提出的考虑声线弯曲的温度场重建算法具有精度高,抗噪性强、适用性好的特点,为实现高精度的复杂温度场的声学测量提供了有效方法。      

Inverse radiation problem of axisymmetric turbulent sooting free flame

An iteration method is extended to reconstruct the time-averaged temperature distribution in turbulent axisymmetric sooting free flame by the multi-wavelength measured data of low time-resolution outgoing emission and transmission radiation intensities. A Gaussian probability density function is used to simulate the turbulent fluctuation of temperature. The reconstruction of time-averaged temperature profile consists of three steps. First, the time-averaged spectral absorption coefficient is retrieved from the time-averaged transmissivity data by iteration method. Then the time-averaged blackbody spectral radiation intensity is estimated from the low time-resolution outgoing spectral emission radiation intensities. Finally, the time-averaged temperature and its standard deviation are approximately reconstructed from the multi-wavelength time-averaged spectral emission radiation data by the least-square method. Both exact and noisy input data have been used to test the performance of the proposed inversion method. The results show that the time-averaged temperature profiles can be estimated with good accuracy by the presented inversion method, even with noisy input data, and the standard deviation of temperature is more sensitive to the measurement errors. In the case of large temperature fluctuation, the errors of estimation for time-averaged temperature profile are large if the turbulent fluctuation is not taken into account.     

Efficient inverse radiation analysis of temperature distribution in participating medium based on backward Monte Carlo method

An efficient numerical inverse radiation analysis based on the backward Monte Carlo (BMC) method is presented to determine the three-dimensional (3-D) temperature distribution in a large rectangular enclosure containing the participating medium, using radiative intensities in the visible range received by charge-coupled device (CCD) cameras. For large radiative sources and small detectors, when the radiation onto a small spot and onto a small direction cone is desired, the BMC method is more efficient than the forward Monte Carlo (FMC) method. Because the temperature reconstruction from the measured radiative intensities is an ill-posed inverse problem, least-square QR decomposition (LSQR) method is introduced to determine the meaningful temperature distribution. In order to gain insight into the effects on the accuracy of temperature distribution reconstruction, the detailed analyses are made using numerical simulations. The results show that the temperature distribution can be reconstructed accurately for the exact and noisy data.     

Measurement of impinging butane flame using combined optical system with digital speckle tomography

Three-dimensional density distributions of an impinging and eccentric flame were measured experimentally using a combined optical system with digital speckle tomography. In addition, a three-dimensional temperature distribution of the flame was reconstructed from an ideal gas equation based on the reconstructed density data. The flame was formed by the ignition of premixed butane/air from air holes and impinged upward against a plate located 24 mm distance from the burner nozzle. In order to verify the reconstruction process for the experimental measurements, numerically synthesized phantoms of impinging and eccentric flames were derived and reconstructed using a developed three-dimensional multiplicative algebraic reconstruction technique (MART). A new scanning technique was developed for the accurate analysis of speckle displacements necessary for investigating the wall jet regions of the impinging flame at which a sharp variation of the flow direction and pressure gradient occur. The reconstructed temperatures by the digital speckle tomography were applied to the boundary condition for numerical analysis of a flame impinged plate. Then, the numerically calculated temperature distribution of the upper side of the flame impinged plate was compared to temperature data taken by an infrared camera. The absolute average uncertainty between the numerical and infrared camera data was 3.7%.     

“绿色”液体激光介质的热流场特性研究

选取掺钕四氟化钆钠(Nd3+:NaGdF4)纳米晶分散到二甲基亚砜作为"绿色"液体介质,构建单侧抽运和液体横流系统,使用ANSYS软件对液体介质稳定热流场分布进行模拟分析。结果表明:当流道形状、流动状态、壁面相同时,液体流场分布基本相同,泵浦光的频率对流场分布影响很小;液体介质入口的流速会影响流线分布,流速越快,流线越密;泵浦区域中,介质沿着液体流动方向温度逐渐升高;在液体流向变化小的区域,可获得较为均匀的温度分布。     

Reconstruction of time-averaged temperature of non-axisymmetric turbulent unconfined sooting flame by inverse radiation analysis

A multi-wavelength inversion method is extended to reconstruct the time-averaged temperature distribution in non-axisymmetric turbulent unconfined sooting flame by the multi-wavelength measured data of low time-resolution outgoing emission and transmission radiation intensities. Gaussian, β and uniform distribution probability density functions (PDF) are used to simulate the turbulent fluctuation of temperature, respectively. The reconstruction of time-averaged temperature consists of three steps. First, the time-averaged spectral absorption coefficient is retrieved from the time-averaged transmissivity data by an algebraic reconstruction technique. Then, the time-averaged blackbody spectral radiation intensity is estimated from the outgoing spectral emission radiation intensities. Finally, the time-averaged temperature is approximately reconstructed from the multi-wavelength time-averaged spectral emission radiation data by the least-squares method. Noisy input data have been used to test the performance of the proposed inversion method. The results show that the time-averaged temperature distribution can be estimated with good accuracy, even with noisy input data. The accuracy of the estimation decreases with the increase of turbulent fluctuation intensity of temperature and the effects of assumed PDF on the reconstruction of temperature are small.     

基于总能形式的耦合的双分布函数热晶格玻尔兹曼数值方法

双分布函数热晶格玻尔兹曼数值方法在微尺度热流动系统中得到广泛的应用. 本文基于晶格玻尔兹曼平衡分布函数低阶Hermite展开式, 创新性地提出了包含黏性热耗散和压缩功的耦合的双分布函数热晶格玻尔兹曼数值方法, 将能量场内温度的变化以动量源的形式引入晶格波尔兹曼动量演化方程, 实现了能量场与动量场之间的耦合. 研究了考虑黏性热耗散和压缩功的和不考虑的两种热自然对流模型, 重点分析了不同瑞利数和普朗特数下流场内的流动情况以及温度、速度和平均努赛尔数的变化趋势. 本文实验结果与文献结果一致, 验证了本文数值方法的可行性和准确性. 研究结果表明: 随着瑞利数和普朗特数的增大, 方腔内对流传热作用逐渐增强, 边界处形成明显的边界层; 考虑黏性热耗散和压缩功的模型对流作用相对增强, 黏性热耗散和压缩功对自然对流的影响在微尺度流动过程中不能忽略.