基于三维Hopkinson杆的混凝土动态力学性能研究

混凝土、岩石类材料在复杂应力状态下的动态力学性能研究一直备受关注,但鉴于动态实验的复杂性,对真三轴应力状态下材料的动态加载一直未曾实现。本文中研制了一套真三轴静载作用下混凝土、岩石类材料的“三维Hopkinson杆”动态力学实验系统,为冲击载荷作用下材料动态各向异性特性的研究提供了一种有效的实验测试技术。该系统采用液压伺服控制对立方体试件施加三向独立的0~100 MPa真三轴静载,再利用分离式Hopkinson压杆对试件施加冲击动载,具体研究了C30混凝土材料在不同真三轴静载条件下的动态压缩性能,得到了不同条件下X、Y、Z方向上的动态应力应变关系。     

微尺度位移、形貌测量系统及应用

研制了一套可应用于MEMS器件的微尺度测量系统，可以在受载状态下实时检测MEMS器件的面内位移、离面位移和三维形貌。该系统中，面内位移测量是一个基于白光数字散斑相关方法的显微光学测量系统，与相应的力学加载系统结合，可以得到MEMS器件在受载状态下的实时面内位移；离面位移和三维形貌测量则是一个基于相移显微投影光栅方法的光学测量系统，与相应的力学加载系统结合，可以得到MEMS器件在受载状态下的实时三维形貌和离面位移。最后给出了几个典型的MEMS器件面内位移、离面位移和三维形貌的实测结果。     

Submicron deformation field measurements: Part 1. Developing a digital scanning tunneling microscope

A new experimental method has been developed for studying deformations of micromechanical material systems at the submicron scale. To that end, a special digital scanning tunneling microscope (STM) was designed to be coupled to a mechanically deforming specimen. Operating in constant current mode, this digitally controlled STM records detailed topographies of specimen surfaces with a resolution of 10 nm in-plane and 7 nm out-of-plane over a 10 μ × 10 μ area. Three-dimensional displacement field information is extracted by comparing topographies of the same specimen area before and after deformation by way of a modified digital image correlation algorithm. The resolution of this (combined) displacement measuring method was assessed on translation and uniaxial tensile tests to be 5 nm for in-plane displacement components and 1.5 nm for out-of-plane motion over the same area. This is the first paper in a series of three in which the authors delineate the main features of this specially designed microscope and describe how it is constituted, calibrated and used with the improved version of the digital image correlation method to determine deformations in a test specimen at the nanoscale.     

A New Experimental Technique for the Multi-axial Testing of Advanced High Strength Steel Sheets

This paper deals with the development of a new experimental technique for the multi-axial testing of flat sheets and its application to advanced high strength steels. In close analogy with the traditional tension-torsion test for bulk materials, the sheet material is subject to combined tension and shear loading. Using a custom-made dual actuator hydraulic testing machine, combinations of normal and tangential loading are applied to the boundaries of a flat sheet metal specimen. The specimen shape is optimized to provide uniform stress and strain fields within its gage section. Finite element simulations are carried out to verify the approximate formulas for the shear and normal stress components at the specimen center. The corresponding strain fields are determined from digital image correlation. Two test series are performed on a TRIP-assisted steel sheet. The experimental results demonstrate that this new experimental technique can be used to investigate the large deformation behavior of advanced high strength steel sheets. The evolution of the yield surface of the TRIP700 steel is determined for both radial and non-proportional loading paths.     

In-plane displacement measurement of composite material by objective speckle

The objective speckle was used to measure the in-plane displacement around the hole in a coupon specimen of composite material under tensile loading. Mirror transplantation method was adopted to ensure the high reflectivity of specimen surface and to obtain high quality double exposure specklegram. The adjustable spatial frequency of the whole-field pattern of the displacement made it possible to measure a broad range of strain, from elastic to plastic. The results obtained by objective speckle agree well with those by Moire method.     

滑轨导向式静/动态双轴拉伸实验技术

基于液压伺服高速加载系统,发展了一种材料双轴拉伸力学性能测试技术。利用锥面接触导向驱动方法,把加载锤竖直方向的驱动力转化为水平方向的双轴驱动力,从而实现对十字形试样平面双轴加载。借助有限元数值模拟手段优化了锥面接触角和十字形试样尺寸。当接触锥角为45°时,既有较好的水平驱动转化效率,同时又保持较小的接触力,确保水平驱动加载各组件在弹性变形范围内,可多次重复使用。确定了加载臂狭缝个数、狭缝与减薄区边缘长度和标距段厚度等试样设计关键参数,在十字形试样测试标距段内实现了均匀变形。设计了测力夹持一体化导杆和非接触光学全场应变测试系统,准确获得了试样的应力和应变。利用此平面双轴拉伸加载装置,开展2024-T351铝合金板单轴拉伸实验和激光探测同步性验证实验,验证装置设计的可行性;开展铝合金板材在不同加载速率下的双轴拉伸实验,得到在双轴加载下铝合金板材应力应变曲线,并与单轴加载下实验结果进行了对比分析。     

一种用于软材料测试的改进SHPB装置

本文提出了一种新的、用于测试橡胶、高弹体及高聚物软泡沫材料动态力学性能的SHPB改进装置。该装置取消了常见的入射杆而采用长杆弹直接撞击试件从而实现了持续的长时间加载，使得在相当大的应变率范围内试件的最大应变在一个加载过程中即可达到。配合该装置采用了瞬态响应优良、分辨率良好的光电式位移测试系统来测量试件的变形；为记录微弱的应变信号，在透射杆中使用了半导体应变片。本方案克服了传统SHPB在测试软材料时由于子弹长度限制带来的加载幅度不足及由于阻抗失配导致的应变信号微弱的困难；与采用高聚物杆的SHPB改进方案相比，本方案的测试结果也更为可靠。在试验装置中还运用了加载整形技术以改善试件中的应力均匀性。从测试结果看，该装置能有效地实现大变形范围、近似恒应变率持续加载以及相应的微弱应变信号的测量。     

Biaxial testing of composite tubes

The development of a tubular test specimen for the characterization of advanced composite-material lamina and laminate mechanical properties is presented. The specimen design and supporting analyses are given for a practical tubular specimen that minimizes end effects. Test results for simplified loading conditions are shown to be in good agreement with values obtained in other tests. Failure strains in laminates are higher than those obtained in comparable flat-coupon tests. The results obtained indicate that the specimen and apparatus are useful for obtaining response properties and failure values under general in-plane loading.     

中应变率材料试验机的研制

本文全面介绍了自行研制的中应变率材料试验机的基本情况,此试验装置可在0.1s^-1-50s^-1应变率范围内对哑铃状圆柱试件和哑铃状扁平试件进行拉伸及加卸载实验,对圆柱状态 试件进行了压缩及加卸载试验,通过采用液压驱动、分级调速、缓冲撞击等技术产生上升沿陡峭的平衡加载脉冲,从而实现中应变率试验;通过自定心夹具、液压缸的精密共轴保证试验的可靠性;辅以定位装置实现对试件的加卸载;同时通过力传感器及配套研制的高动态应变仪、光学引伸仪完成应力、应变的测量,经实验考评,表明装置是可靠的。     

Quantitative Stereovision in a Scanning Electron Microscope

Accurate, 3D full-field measurements at the micron-level are of interest in a wide range of applications, including both facilitation of mechanical experiments at reduced length scales and accurate profiling of specimen surfaces. Scanning electron microscope systems (SEMs) are a natural platform for acquiring high magnification images for stereo-reconstruction. In this work, an integrated methodology for accurate three-dimensional metric reconstruction and deformation measurements using single column SEM imaging systems is described. In these studies, the specimen stage is rotated in order to obtain stereo views of the specimen as it undergoes mechanical or thermal loading. Simulations and preliminary experimental studies at 300× demonstrate that (a) spatially-varying image distortions can be removed from images using a non-parametric distortion model, (b) the system can be reliably calibrated using distortion-corrected images of a planar object and grid at various orientations and (c) specimen rotation variability during the measurement phase can be controlled so that baseline strain errors are within the range of ±150 με. Benchmark rigid body motion experiments using calibrated SEM views demonstrate that all components of strain in the reconstructed object have a mean value around O(10⁻⁴) and a random spatial distribution with standard deviation ≈ 300 micro-strain.     

Disk-shaped compact tension test for asphalt concrete fracture

A disk-shaped compact tension (DC(T)) test has been developed as a practical method for obtaining the fracture energy of asphalt concrete. The main purpose of the development of this specimen geometry is the ability to test cylindrical cores obtained from in-place asphalt concrete pavements or gyratory-compacted specimens fabricated during the mixture design process. A suitable specimen geometry was developed using the ASTM E399 standard for compact tension testing of metals as a starting point. After finalizing the specimen geometry, a typical asphalt concrete surface mixture was tested at various temperatures and loading rates to evaluate the proposed DC(T) configuration. The variability of the fracture energy obtained from the DC(T) geometry was found to be comparable with the variability associated with other fracture tests for asphalt concrete. The ability of the test to detect changes in the fracture energy with the various testing conditions (temperature and loading rate) was the benchmark for determining the potential of using the DC(T) geometry. The test has the capability to capture the transition of asphalt concrete from a brittle material at low temperatures to a more ductile material at higher temperatures. Because testing was conducted on ungrooved specimens, special care was taken to quantify deviations of the crack path from the pure mode I crack path. An analysis of variance of test data revealed that the prototype DC(T) can detect statistical differences in fracture energy resulting for tests conducted across a useful range of test temperatures and loading rates. This specific analysis also indicated that fracture energy is not correlated to crack deviation angle. This paper also provides an overview of ongoing work integrating experimental results and observations with numerical analysis by means of a cohesive zone model tailored for asphalt concrete fracture behavior.     

A high-strain biaxial-testing rig for thin-walled tubes under axial load and pressure

It is well know that high-strain biaxial testing with axial force and pressure on thin-walled tubes can be interesting from several points of view: capability of testing over the whole range of strain or stress ratios, great versatility of testing. and because of the physical system, the measured strains and stresses are principal. Nevertheless, there are few experimental-biaxial-fatique data due to the complexity of the testing equipment involved. In this paper, an experimental testing rig capable of subjecting thin-walled tubes to combined dynamic loadings in tension-compression with torsion and tension-compression with internal-external pressure is presented. The following components are described: the mechanical and hydraulic system, servohydraulic control, specimen configuration, strain-measuring equipment and data-acquisition system. The computation of stresses and strains, as well as examples of data acquisition, are also shown.     

加载速率和几何尺寸对国产A508-III钢断裂行为影响的实验研究

由加载速率和几何约束改变而引起的压力容器钢韧脆转变问题是核能安全领域亟待解决的关键问题. 为了准确分析国产A508-III钢的动态断裂行为, 借助INSTRON VHS高速材料试验机, 开展了不同加载速率和几何尺寸条件下的国产A508-III钢的断裂韧性试验, 研究了加载速率和几何尺寸等因素对国产A508-III钢动态断裂韧性的影响. 研究表明, A508-III钢具有良好的抗冲击韧性, 随着加载速率的提高, 试样的总冲击吸收能基本保持恒定, 裂纹萌生吸收能量不断上升, 而裂纹扩展吸收能量呈下降趋势. J-Δa阻力曲线和条件起裂韧性J_Q随着几何约束的增加而降低, 随加载速率的增加而升高. 当达到某一临界速率时, 条件起裂韧性J_Q基本恒定, 试样断裂方式也由韧性断裂转变为韧?脆?韧混合断裂. 由于出现混合断裂模式, 发生脆性断裂时的最大J积分值J_max更适于描述国产A508-III钢的断裂韧性演化规律. 随着试样面外几何约束的降低, J_max随Δa_m的增加而线性增大. 试样面内几何约束越高, J_max与Δa_m之间的线性关系斜率越大. 随着试样几何约束的增加, 材料的韧脆转变速率增加, J_max值下降. 改变几何约束只能在有限的加载速率范围内改变材料的断裂方式, 当加载速率超过某个临界值时, 加载速率成为影响材料断裂方式的主要因素.      

A rigorous assessment of the benefits of miniaturization in the Kolsky bar system

A rigorous experimental and numerical assessment is made of the benefits and limits of miniaturization in the Kolsky bar system. The primary issues that arise in very high strain rate testing (stress equilibration, inertial effects, wave dispersion, friction, and controllability of deformations) are addressed through experiments coupled with explicit finite element analyses. A miniaturized Kolsky bar system that includes the input bar is developed, together with the use of the laser occlusive radius detector to obtain local measurements of specimen strain during the very high rate deformations. It is demonstrated that this miniaturized Kolsky bar system can be used to provide fully validated results, including the explicit determination of equilibration, over a very wide range of strain rates (1×10³ to 5×10⁴ s⁻¹). The desired high strain rate can be achieved even at low accumulated strains, and the total strain developed can be controlled very effectively. Specific conditions are developed for determining the range of utility of the technique for a given material. The technique is applied to the characterization of 6061-T651 aluminum, and the results are compared with the results obtained using a conventional Kolsky bar.     

基于Hopkinson压杆的M型试样动态拉伸实验方法研究

采用传统分离式Hopkinson压杆进行M型试样的动态拉伸实验,可避免试样与杆的连接问题,但该方法并未得到发展和验证。本文中,采用有限元数值分析和实验方法,对M型试样动态拉伸实验进行分析和改进。结果表明:（1）改进的封闭M型试样,可以增强试样整体刚度,有效减少试样畸变引起的附加弯矩对拉伸标段的影响,方便通过Hopkinson压杆加载实现一维拉伸变形;（2）采用试样刚度系数修正法,可消除M型试样整体结构的弹性变形对测试的影响,精确获得试样拉伸标段的塑性应变;（3）高加载率下,建议采用波形整器加载,可显著减少试样结构引起的载荷震荡现象、改善两端的应力平衡,获得准确的动态拉伸应力应变曲线,实现5 900 s?1甚至更高应变率下的动态拉伸实验。研究方法可为M型试样拉伸实验设计和应用提供参考。     

Determination of dynamic properties of elastomers over broad frequency range

Support excitation of a small spring-mass system, consisting of a massm and two thin wafers in shear, is used as a simple and reliable method to determine the dynamic properties (storage-modulus and complex-modulus loss factor) of elastomeric materials over a fairly broad frequency range. No special equipment or instrumentation is required since ordinary vibration equipment is used. Microminiature accelerometers are used to monitor the support and mass accelerations which eliminates the measurement of small forces and displacements. The frequency range of interest over which experimental data can be obtained fromone specimen can be varied by the thicknessh of the elastomeric waters and/or the size of the massm. The method discussed has been used to determine the dynamic properties of a wide variety of elastomers with frequencies as high as 6000 Hz. Typical results demonstrating repeatability of the method are shown for a carboxyl-terminated butadiene acrylonitrile (CTBN) specimen over the frequency range of 500–3000 Hz. The small test setup is easily adaptable for use in small temprature-controlled chambers for temperature/frequency studies of elastomers. The mathematical model developed for reduction of experimental data is based on the complex shear modulus for the damping model of the elastomer where the spring-mass system is subjected to support excitation.     

An apparatus for tensile testing of concrete

This paper describes a test fixture and alignment jig used for testing small concrete or rock cylinders in uniaxial tension. The fixture may be easily modified to test cube specimens and is adaptable for use in any standard universal testing machine. A testing procedure is described and results presented for 3 in. × 6 in. (76 mm × 152 mm) concrete cylinders. The main virtues of the fixture are its ease of construction, simple alignment procedure for the test specimen, and accuracy comparable to that obtained from the standard compression test of concrete cylinders.     

Real-time moiré interferometry

A high-frequency moiré interferometric technique to continuously monitor in-plane surface displacement is presented. This technique employs fiber optics and a thermoplastic device to holographically record the initial carrier pattern produced on the surface of a test specimen. The carrier is modulated as the specimen deforms and moiré fringes, indicative of in-plane displacement, are observed in real time. Unwanted holointerferometric patterns are eliminated by appropriately adjusting the polarization of the reference wavefront. This paper describes a demonstration of the real-time technique as applied to the study of deformations in a notched beam subjected to three-point loading. Paper was presented at the 1986 SEM Spring Conference on Experimental Mechanics, held in New Orleans, LA on June 8–13.     

Assessment of Non-Adiabatic Behaviour in Thermoelastic Stress Analysis of Small Scale Components

The classical thermoelastic equation and the generalized heat conduction equation are developed to deal with a non-adiabatic response in thermoelastic stress analysis. A FE simulation procedure is set up to solve the heat conduction equation over a range of loading frequencies. A small disc (20 mm diameter) loaded under three-point diametric compression is used to examine the effect of in-plane heat conduction. As the disc has regions of zero, moderate and high stress gradients it is an ideal component for this analysis. A regime is developed that provides a basis for an assessment of the nature of the response and allows a minimum loading frequency to be identified so that adiabatic behaviour is obtained. This validity of this approach is demonstrated on steel disc of 20 mm diameter. A special loading device has been designed to obtain the three-point loading and a recently introduced Instron Electropuls test machine is used to achieve the high levels of cyclic loading required for the adiabatic conditions.     

Numerical analysis of the dual actuator load test applied to fracture characterization of bonded joints

The dual actuator load test was numerically analyzed in order to assess its adequacy for fracture characterization of bonded joints under different mixed-mode loading conditions. This test enables asymmetric loading of double cantilever beam specimens, thus providing a large range of mixed-mode combinations. A new data reduction scheme based on specimen compliance, beam theory and crack equivalent concept was proposed to overcome several difficulties inherent to the test. The method assumes that the dual actuator test can be viewed as a combination of the double cantilever beam and end loaded split tests, which are used for pure modes I and II fracture characterization, respectively. A numerical analysis including a cohesive mixed-mode damage model was performed considering different mixed-mode loading conditions to evaluate the test performance. Some conclusions were drawn about the advantages and drawbacks of the test.