Multiple aromaticity and antiaromaticity in silicon clusters.

A series of silicon clusters containing four atoms but with different charge states (Si4(2+), Si4, Si4(2-), and NaSi4-) were studied by photoelectron spectroscopy and ab initio calculations. Structure evolution and chemical bonding in this series were interpreted in terms of aromaticity and antiaromaticity, which allowed the prediction of how structures of the four-atom silicon clusters change upon addition or removal of two electrons. It is shown that Si4(2+) is square-planar, analogous to the recently discovered aromatic Al4(2-) cluster. Upon of two electrons, neutral Si4 becomes sigma-antiaromatic and exhibits a rhombus distortion. Adding two more electrons to Si4 leads to two energetically close structures of Si4(2-): either a double antiaromatic parallelogram structure or an aromatic system with a butterfly distortion. Because of the electronic instability of doubly charged Si4(2-), a stabilizing cation (Na+) was used to produce Si4(2-) in the gas phase in the form of Na+[Si4(2-)], which was characterized experimentally by photoelectron spectroscopy. Multiple antiaromaticity in the parallelogram Na+[Si4(2-)] species is highly unusual.     

Cluster-assembled compounds comprising an all-metal subunit Li3Al4-

The recent, experimentally-discovered, all-metal antiaromatic Li3Al4- has attracted great interest and extensive investigations due to its unique chemical bonds and exotic properties. Although a very recent theoretical study demonstrated that the all-metal species Li3Al4- can be effectively stabilized by complexation with 3d transition metals, unfortunately such stabilization is at the expense of losing antiaromaticity (rectangular Al4) to become aromatic (square Al4). Here, we predict theoretically a series of cluster-assembled compounds [DM(Li3Al4)]q- (D=Li3Al4-, Cp-; M=Li, Na, K, Be, Mg, Ca). The assembled species are ground states containing the all-metal antiaromatic Li3Al4- subunits. Many fusion isomers are energetically lower than the homo-decked cluster-assembled compounds, thus, the homo-decked assembly species [M(Li3Al4)2]q- are less likely due to their thermodynamic instability. In addition, the well-retained all-metal antiaromaticity is mainly ascribed to the ionic electrostatic interactions and the protections of rigid organic aromatic Cp-deck avoiding the fusion of Li3Al4-. Our results represent the first example that the all-metal antiaromaticity is well retained in assembled compounds as that in the free Li3Al4- cluster. Sufficiently large interaction energies make the realization of all-metal antiaromatic Li3Al4--incorporated compounds very promising.     

Unraveling the origin of the peculiar reaction field of triruthenium ring core structures

The molecular and electronic structures, stabilities, bonding features, and spectroscopic properties of prototypical ligand stabilized [cyclo-Ru3(mu2-X)3]0,3+ (X = H, BH, CH2, NH2, OH, Cl, NH, CO, O, PH2, CF2, CCl2, CNH, N3) isocycles have been thoroughly investigated by means of electronic structure calculation methods at the DFT level of theory. All [cyclo-Ru3(mu2-X)3]0,3+ species, except [cyclo-Ru3(mu2-H)3]3+, are predicted to be aromatic molecules. In contrast, the [cyclo-Ru3(mu2-H)3]3+ species exhibits a high antiaromatic character, which would be responsible for the well-established peculiar reaction field of hydrido-bridged triruthenium core structures. The aromaticity/antiaromaticity of the model [cyclo-Ru3(mu2-X)3]0,3+ isocycles was verified by an efficient and simple criterion in probing the aromaticity/antiaromaticity of a molecule, that of the nucleus-independent chemical shift, NICS(0), NICS(1), NICS(-1), NICSzz(1), and NICSzz(-1), along with the NICS scan profiles. The versatile chemical reactivity of the antiaromatic [cyclo-Ru3(mu2-H)3]3+ molecule related to the activation of small molecules that leads to the breaking of various strong single and double bonds is thoroughly investigated by means of electronic structure computational techniques, and the mechanistic details for a representative activation process, that of the dehydrogenation of NH3, to form a triply bridging imido-group (mu3-NH) face-capping the Ru3 ring are presented. Finally, the molecular and electronic structures, stabilities, and bonding features of a series of [cyclo-Ru3(mu2-H)3(mu3-Nuc)]0,1,2+ (Nuc = BH, BCN, BOMe, C4-, CH3-, CMe3-, N3-, NH, N3-, NCO-, OCN-, NCS-, O2-, S2-, OH-, P3-, POH2-, Cl-, O22-, NCH, AlMe, GaMe, C6H6, and cyclo-C3H2Me) products formed upon reacting the archetype [cyclo-Ru3(mu2-H)3]3+ molecule with the appropriate substrates are also comprehensibly analyzed.     

Sandwich-like compounds based on bare all-boron cluster B(6)(2-)

Here, we theoretically predict antiaromatic double-decked compounds [DMB(6)](q-) (D = B(6)(2-), Cp(-); M = Li, Na, K, Be, Mg, Ca) as well as the triple-decked sandwich-like species. Being energetically higher than the fusion isomers, the homo-decked assembly species [B(6)MB(6)](q-) without and with counterions are less likely to be observed experimentally. The hetero-decked sandwich species are low-lying minima containing double-fold antiaromatic B(6)(2-) building blocks. Additionally, the well-retained double antiaromaticity is mainly ascribed to the ionic electrostatic interaction and the protection of rigid Cp-deck in order to avoid the fusion of B(6)(2-). Our results represent the first example that the antiaromaticity is well retained in assembled compounds as in the free B(6)(2-) cluster. Realization of the double antiaromatic B(6)(2-)-incorporated assembled compound is very promising.     

Reduction of benzylidene dibenzo[a,d]cycloheptenes: over-reduction of antiaromatic dianions to aromatic tetraanions

The antiaromaticity of a series of dianions of p-substituted benzylidene dibenzo[a,d]cycloheptenes was examined through calculated measures of antiaromaticity. The nucleus-independent chemical shifts (NICS) and magnetic susceptibility exaltation both showed substantial antiaromatic character in the benzannulated tropylium anion. When the antiaromaticity was normalized for the area of the ring, these tropylium anions were shown to be among the most antiaromatic anions in the chemical literature. Attempts to make the dianion through reduction with lithium or potassium gave the tetraanion as the only species observable in the (1)H NMR spectrum. Quench of the reaction mixture with trimethylsilyl chloride or D(2)O confirmed the presence of the tetraanion, but only as a small portion of the reaction mixture, with the major product being unreacted starting material. The failure to observe starting material was attributed to similarities in the structures of the starting material and anion radical (first reduction), allowing rapid electron transfer between them. The inability to see the dianion (second reduction) could be the result of the very small HOMO-LUMO gap anticipated for highly antiaromatic species, which would allow access to diradical species. The magnitude of the HOMO-LUMO gap was determined by the difference between the HOMO and LUMO energies from geometry optimization and the lowest energy transition from TD-DFT calculations. The HOMO-LUMO gap for the benzylidene dibenzocycloheptatriene dianions was shown to be much smaller than the HOMO-LUMO gap of species for which (1)H NMR spectra had been observed.     

Aromaticity and antiaromaticity in fulvenes, ketocyclopolyenes, fulvenones, and diazocyclopolyenes

The structures, energies, natural charges, and magnetic properties of 3-, 5-, 7-, and 9-membered cyclic polyenes 1-4, respectively, with exocyclic methylene, keto, ketenyl, and diazo substituents (a-d, respectively) were computed at the B3LYP/6-311G+ **//B3LYP/6-311+G** level to elucidate their aromatic and antiaromatic properties. The corresponding conjugated cyclic cations le and 3e were also studied. The criteria used are isomerization energies (ISE), magnetic susceptibility exaltations (lambda), aromatic stabilization energies (ASE), nucleus independent chemical shifts (NICS), and bond length alternation (deltaR). Planar C2v structures were found to be the lowest energy minima with the exceptions of diazocyclopropene (1d), cycloheptafulvenone (3c), diazocycloheptatriene (3d), and all of the cyclononatetraene derivatives (4). The fulvenes (1a-4a) have modest aromatic or antiaromatic character, and are used as standards for comparison. By these criteria the ketenylidene and diazo cyclopropenes and cycloheptatrienes 1,3-c,d and oxo cyclopentadiene and cyclononatetraene 2,4b are antiaromatic, while the 5- and 9-ring ketenyl and diazo compounds and 3- and 7-ring ketones are aromatic. The degree of aromatic/antiaromatic character decreases with ring size. The consistent agreement with Hückel rule predictions for all the criteria shows their utility for the evaluation of the elusive properties of aromaticity and antiaromaticity.     

Dianion and dication of tetrabenzo[5.7]fulvalene. Greater antiaromaticity than aromaticity in comparable systems

The dianion, 5(2-), and dication, 5(2+), of tetrabenzo[5.7]fulvalene represent an aromaticity/antiaromaticity continuum in which the fluorenyl system changes from aromatic in 5(2-) to antiaromatic in 5(2+). Conversely, the antiaromatic dibenzotropylium system of 5(2-) becomes an aromatic system in 5(2+), allowing an examination of aromaticity/antiaromaticity within the same carbon framework. Dianion 5(2-) was prepared and characterized by (1)H NMR spectroscopy. The fluorenyl system of 5(2-) showed the downfield shifts expected for an aromatic system, while the dibenzotropylium system showed the paratropic shifts expected for an antiaromatic system. The conclusions from (1)H NMR spectroscopy were supported by NICS(1) zz calculations for each system. Comparison of the (1)H NMR spectrum and NICS(1) zz of 5(2-) with those of 5(2+) supported the assignments of aromaticity/antiaromaticity for each system. Aromaticity/antiaromaticity were further examined through comparison of the degree of bond length alternation, which showed that the bond length alternation was slightly greater for the antiaromatic ring systems than for the aromatic systems. However, when structures of 5(2-) and 5(2+) with no bond length alternation were examined, there was a dramatic increase in the degree of antiaromaticity for the antiaromatic ring systems as evaluated through NICS. This result suggests that a decrease in bond length alternation results in an increase in antiaromaticity as well as an increase in aromaticity. The magnitude of the antiaromaticity of the fluorenyl system in 5(2+) was greater than the magnitude of the aromaticity in the fluorenyl system of 5(2-), with similar effects shown by the analogous tropylium systems. This is consistent with the behavior of the antiaromatic dication of tetrabenzo[5.5]fulvalene, compared to that of its aromatic dianion, and also with the behavior of the cyclopentadienyl cation/anion and tropylium cation/anion.     

六氢吡啶团簇的研究

The 6H-pyridine clusters have been studied by the TOF mass spectrometry, the VUV from synchrotron radiation and the molecular beam technique. Three-type clusters are observed in the VUV photoionization mass spectroscopy: Pn+(n=2-5,P stands for 6H-pyridine molecule), PnH+ (n=2-4) and Pn (H2O)m+(n=4,5, m=1;n=6, m=1,2). The PnH+ clusters may have the chain structures, the Pn+ and Pn(H2O)m+ clusters may have the cyclic structures, all of these are formed by the hydrogen-bond.     

Dications of 3-phenyl-indenylidene dibenzo[a.d]cycloheptene: the role of charge in the antiaromaticity of cationic systems

Dications of 9-(3-phenyl-1H-inden-1-ylidene)-5H-dibenzo[a,d]cycloheptene, 5(2+), were prepared by oxidation with SbF(5) in SO(2)ClF, and their magnetic behavior was compared to dications of 9-(3-phenyl-1H-inden-1-ylidene)-9H-fluorene, 2(2+). The good correlation between the experimental (1)H NMR shifts for the dications that were oxidized cleanly and the chemical shifts calculated by the GAIO method supported the use of the nucleus independent chemical shifts, NICS, to evaluate the antiaromaticity of the indenyl systems of 2(2+)/5(2+) and their unsubstituted parent compounds, 6(2+) and 7(2+), as well as the antiaromaticity of the fluorenyl system of 2(2+)/7(2+) and the aromaticity of the dibenzotropylium system of 5(2+)/6(2+). Antiaromaticity was shown to be directly related to the amount of charge in the antiaromatic systems, with the antiaromatic systems more responsive to changes in the calculated NBO charge than the aromatic systems. The antiaromaticity was also shown to be directly related to the amount of delocalization in the ring system. The aromaticity of the dibenzotropylium system was much less responsive to changes in the amount of charge in the tropylium system, because the aromatic system was much more completely delocalized. Thus, antiaromatic species are more sensitive probes of delocalization than aromatic ones.     

A bispericyclic transition structure allows for efficient relief of antiaromaticity enhancing reactivity and endo stereoselectivity in the dimerization of the fleeting cyclopentadienone

B3LYP/6-31G calculations account for the enhanced reactivity and endo stereoselectivity in the dimerization of the fleeting antiaromatic cyclopentadienone. Secondary orbital interactions promote endo stereoselectivity and a full merging of 4+2 and 2+4 allowed paths in an endo bispericyclic transition structure. Electrostatic effects increase reactivity and selectivity but the driving force to enhanced reactivity is the loss of antiaromaticity in the dimerization TSs while enhanced selectivity derives from the more efficient relief of antiaromaticity in the bispericyclic array.     

Ionization induced relaxation in solvation structure: a comparison between Na(H2O)n and Na(NH3)n

The constant ionization potential for hydrated sodium clusters Na(H2O)n just beyond n=4, as observed in photoionization experiments, has long been a puzzle in violation of the well-known (n+1)(-1/3) rule that governs the gradual transition in properties from clusters to the bulk. Based on first principles calculations, a link is identified between this puzzle and an important process in solution: the reorganization of the solvation structure after the removal of a charged particle. Na(H2O)n is a prototypical system with a solvated electron coexisting with a solvated sodium ion, and the cluster structure is determined by a balance among three factors: solute-solvent (Na+-H2O), solvent-solvent (H2O-H2O), and electron-solvent (OH{e}HO) interactions. Upon the removal of an electron by photoionization, extensive structural reorganization is induced to reorient OH{e}HO features in the neutral Na(H2O)n for better Na+-H2O and H2O-H2O interactions in the cationic Na+(H2O)n. The large amount of energy released, often reaching 1 eV or more, indicates that experimentally measured ion signals actually come from autoionization via vertical excitation to high Rydberg states below the vertical ionization potential, which induces extensive structural reorganization and the loss of a few solvent molecules. It provides a coherent explanation for all the peculiar features in the ionization experiments, not only for Na(H2O)n but also for Li(H2O)n and Cs(H2O)n. In addition, the contrast between Na(H2O)n and Na(NH3)n experiments is accounted for by the much smaller relaxation energy for Na(NH3)n, for which the structures and energetics are also elucidated.     

Ground- and excited-state aromaticity and antiaromaticity in benzene and cyclobutadiene

The aromaticity and antiaromaticity of the ground state (S 0), lowest triplet state (T 1), and first singlet excited state (S 1) of benzene, and the ground states (S 0), lowest triplet states (T 1), and the first and second singlet excited states (S 1 and S 2) of square and rectangular cyclobutadiene are assessed using various magnetic criteria including nucleus-independent chemical shifts (NICS), proton shieldings, and magnetic susceptibilities calculated using complete-active-space self-consistent field (CASSCF) wave functions constructed from gauge-including atomic orbitals (GIAOs). These magnetic criteria strongly suggest that, in contrast to the well-known aromaticity of the S 0 state of benzene, the T 1 and S 1 states of this molecule are antiaromatic. In square cyclobutadiene, which is shown to be considerably more antiaromatic than rectangular cyclobutadiene, the magnetic properties of the T 1 and S 1 states allow these to be classified as aromatic. According to the computed magnetic criteria, the T 1 state of rectangular cyclobutadiene is still aromatic, but the S 1 state is antiaromatic, just as the S 2 state of square cyclobutadiene; the S 2 state of rectangular cyclobutadiene is nonaromatic. The results demonstrate that the well-known "triplet aromaticity" of cyclic conjugated hydrocarbons represents a particular case of a broader concept of excited-state aromaticity and antiaromaticity. It is shown that while electronic excitation may lead to increased nuclear shieldings in certain low-lying electronic states, in general its main effect can be expected to be nuclear deshielding, which can be substantial for heavier nuclei.     

Water superstructures within organic arrays; hydrogen-bonded water sheets, chains and clusters

A strategy for encouraging the formation of extended water arrays is presented, in which molecules that contain a 1,4-dihydroquinoxaline-2,3-dione core are used as supramolecular hosts for the accommodation of guest water molecules and arrays. These molecules were selected as they contain a hydrophilic oxalamide-based "terminus" that allows water molecules to hydrogen-bond to the host organic molecules as well as to each other. The host molecules also contain a hydrophobic "end" based upon an aromatic ring, which serves to encourage the formation of discrete water clusters in preference to three-dimensional networks, as the water molecules cannot form strong hydrogen bonds with this part of the molecule. A systematic study of several hydrated structures of four organic molecules based on 1,4-dihydroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (qd) is discussed. The organic molecules, qd, 6-methyl-1,4-dihydroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (mqd), 6,7-dimethyl-1,4-dihydroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (dmqd) and 1,4-dihydrobenzo[g]quinoxaline-2,3-dione (Phqd), act as supramolecular crystal hosts for the clusters of water, with zero-, one- and two-dimensional arrays of water being observed. The hydrogen bonding in the structures, both within the water clusters and between the clusters and organic molecules, is examined. In particular, the structure of dmqd6 H2O contains a two-dimensional water sheet composed of pentagonal and octagonal units. Phqd3 H2O forms a hydrophilic extended structure encouraging the formation of one-dimensional chains consisting entirely of water. Both qd2 H2O and dmqd2 H2O can be considered to form one-dimensional chains, but only by utilising bridging carbonyl groups of the oxalamide moieties to form the extended array; if only the water is considered, zero-dimensional water tetramers are observed. The remaining hydrated structures, [Na+dmqd-]dmqdH2O, dmqd1/3H2O and mqd1/2H2O, all contain discrete water molecules but do not form extended water structures.     

Stabilizing Two Classical Antiaromatic Frameworks: Demonstration of Photoacoustic Imaging and the Photothermal Effect in Metalla‐aromatics

Antiaromatic species are substantially less thermodynamically stable than aromatic moieties. Herein, we report the stabilization of two classical antiaromatic frameworks, cyclobutadiene and pentalene, by introducing one metal fragment through the first [2+2] cycloaddition reaction of a late‐transition‐metal carbyne with alkynes. Experimental observations and theoretical calculations reveal that the metal fragment decreases the antiaromaticity in cyclobutadiene and pentalene simultaneously, leading to air‐ and moisture‐stable products. These molecules show broad absorption from the UV to the near‐IR region, resulting in photoacoustic and photothermal effects for metalla‐aromatic compounds for the first time. These results will encourage further efforts into the exploration of organometallic compounds for photoacoustic‐imaging‐guided photothermal therapy.     

Interatomic magnetizability: a QTAIM-based approach toward deciphering magnetic aromaticity

Interatomic magnetizability provides insight into the extent of electronic current density between two adjacent atomic basins. By studying a number of well-known aromatic, nonaromatic, and antiaromatic molecules, it is demonstrated that interatomic magnetizability (bond magnetizability) not only is able to verify the exact nature of aromaticity/antiaromaticity among different molecules, but also can distinguish the correct aromaticity order among sets of aromatic/antiaromatic molecules. The interatomic magnetizability is a direct measure of the current flux between two adjacent atomic basins and is the first QTAIM-derived index that evaluates aromaticity based on a response property, that is, magnetizability. Bond magnetizability is easy to compute, straightforward to interpret, and can be employed to evaluate the pure π- or σ-orbital contributions to magnetic aromaticity.     

Antiaromaticity proved by the anisotropic effect in 1H NMR spectra

The spatial magnetic properties (through-space NMR shieldings, or TSNMRSs) of the antiaromatic 9-oxaanthracene anion 12(-) and of the corresponding 9-dimeric dianion 11(2-) have been calculated by the gauge-invariant atomic orbitals (GIAO) perturbation method employing the nucleus independent chemical shift (NICS) concept and visualized as iso-chemical-shielding surfaces (ICSSs) of various size and direction. The TSNMRS values, thus obtained, can be employed to indicate antiaromaticity by paratropic ring currents of the anionic compounds of 11(2-) and 12(-) studied and other neutral and ionic antiaromatic molecules from previous studies because anisotropic effects of functional groups in (1)H NMR spectra have quantitatively proven to be the molecular response property of theoretical spatial nucleus independent chemical shieldings (NICS).     

Effect of transition state aromaticity and antiaromaticity on intrinsic barriers of proton transfers in aromatic and antiaromatic heterocyclic systems; an ab initio study

An ab initio study of two series of carbon-to-carbon proton transfer reactions is reported. The first series refers to the heterocyclic C(4)H(5)X(+)/C(4)H(4)X (X = CH(-), NH, S, O, PH, CH(2), AlH, BH) systems, and the second to the linear [Formula: see text] (X = CH(-), NH, S, PH, O, CH(2), AlH, BH) reference systems . The major objective of this study was to examine to what degree the aromaticity of C(4)H(4)X (X = CH(-), NH, S, O, PH) and the antiaromaticity of C(4)H(4)X (X = AlH, BH) is expressed at the transition state of the proton transfer and how this affects the respective intrinsic barriers. From the differences in the barriers between a given cyclic system and the corresponding linear reference system , ΔΔH(++) = ΔH(++)(cyclic) - ΔH(++)(linear), it was inferred that in the cyclic systems both aromaticity and antiaromaticity lower ΔH(++)(cyclic). This conclusion was based on the assumption that the factors not associated with aromaticity or antiaromaticity such as resonance, inductive and polarizability effects in the protonated species, and charge delocalization occurring along the reaction coordinate affect ΔH(++) for the cyclic and linear systems in a similar way and hence offset each other in ΔΔH(++). The extent by which ΔH(++)(cyclic) is lowered in the aromatic systems correlates quite well with the degree of aromaticity of C(4)H(4)X as measured by aromatic stabilization energies as well as the NICS(1) values of the respective C(4)H(4)X. According to the rules of the principle of nonperfect synchronization (PNS), these results imply a disproportionately large degree of aromaticity at the transition state for the aromatic systems and a disproportionately small degree of transition state antiaromaticity for the antiaromatic systems. These conclusions are consistent with the changes in the NICS(1) values along the reaction coordinate. Other points discussed in the paper include the complex interplay of resonance, inductive, and polarizability effects, along with aromaticity and antiaromaticity on the proton affinities of C(4)H(4)X.     

Paratropicity and antiaromaticity: role of the homo-lumo energy gap

Doubly charged systems derived from fused benzenoid polycycles reveal an unquenched delocalization of 4 n π-electrons and hence are predicted to possess antiaromatic character. The magnitude of the paratropic ¹H NMR chemical shifts, due solely to the paramagnetic secondary field sustained in these species, was found to depend linearly upon the magnitude of LUMO-HOMO energy gaps of the corresponding systems. The existence of such a correlation enables a comprehensive treatment of the various factors which determine the antiaromatic character and the subtle interrelations between those factors. This, in turn, leads to a deeper understanding of antiaromaticity.     

Dications of 3-phenylindenylidenefluorenes: evaluation of antiaromaticity of indenyl and fluorenyl cations by magnetic measures

Dications of p-substituted 3-phenylindenylidenefluorenes were prepared to examine the response of the resulting indenyl and fluorenyl cationic systems to magnetic measures of antiaromaticity. All measures, (1)H NMR shifts, nucleus independent chemical shifts (NICS(1)(zz)), and magnetic susceptibility exaltation, Lambda, supported the antiaromaticity of the dications 3a-f2+. The 1H NMR shifts and NICS(1)(zz) showed that the indenyl ring system was less antiaromatic than the fluorenyl ring system, contrary to the antiaromaticity of indenyl monocations compared to fluorenyl monocations. The presence of a phenyl substituent in the 3-position was able to stabilize the indenylidene cation through resonance, decreasing its antiaromaticity, but even in the absence of the 3-phenyl substituent, the indenyl system of indenylidenefluorene dications was less antiaromatic than the fluorenyl system. The decreased antiaromaticity of the 3-phenylindenylidenefluorene dications over the unsubstituted indenylidenefluorene dication was supported by (anti)aromatic (de)stabilization energy calculations, ASE.