Planar velocity visualization in high-speed wedge flow using Doppler Picture Velocimetry (DPV) compared with Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)

A technique for visualizing a velocity field in an entire plane has been developed by taking ‘Doppler Pictures’ using Michelson interferometry. With the Doppler Picture Velocimetry (DPV), information about the instantaneous and local velocities of tracers passing through a light sheet is available. The technique for taking and processing the Doppler pictures has been improved recently and the state-of-the-art of the DPV method will be described with an application in high-speed fluid flows showing the velocity distribution in a light sheet plane crossing a supersonic wedge flow generated in the high-energy shock tunnel STB of ISL. A comparison with Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) velocity visualizations is also presented.     

多光谱成像的粒子图像测速

基于时间分辨的粒子图像测速技术(time-resolved particle image velocimetry, TR-PIV)是一种广泛应用的非接触式二维瞬时流场可视化测量技术。为了得到流场精细的瞬态空间结构和演变过程,提出了一种利用多光谱成像技术来提高流场测量的时间分辨率的方法。利用多个不同波长的脉冲激光照明流场中的同一测量区域,使用多光谱成像系统采集不同波长的粒子图像,经过图像分离,判决计算产生速度矢量场。为了验证这一原理的可行性,使用三种不同波长(488,532和632.8 nm)的单色光谱脉冲搭建了一套基于多光谱成像的TR-PIV系统,通过多波长激光脉冲之间时序的精确控制,将两帧图像之间的时间间隔从10 ms缩短至3.4 ms,时间分辨率提高了3倍。结果表明基于多光谱的TR-PIV测量系统在保持PIV技术瞬时全场测量特点的同时,时间分辨率大为提高。     

Fourier fringe processing using a regressive Fourier-transform technique

Since the introduction of a fourier fringe algorithm by Takeda, it has been possible to determine the phase of a particular light source impinging on an object from one sole image. This has led to applications in many whole field optical measurement techniques such as ESPI, holography, profilometry and so on. However, the basic processing technique, in case of the 2D-Fourier transform, is subject to a major drawback. Because this technique supposes periodicity in a fringe image, the so-called leakage effects occur. This gives rise to non-negligible errors, which can be resolved by using a regressive Fourier transformation technique. In the method introduced in this article, the fringe signal is represented by a model using sines and cosines where the frequency is not fixed (which is the case for classical FFT-techniques). The coefficients of those sines and cosines together with the frequency components are then estimated locally by means of a frequency domain system identification technique. This allows the fringe pattern to be unwrapped without any distortion. This method will be applied in particular to Fourier-transform profilometry (determines object geometry using shifts of projected fringes) although it can be used in any of the techniques mentioned above. Moreover, it will be shown that the proposed method can deal with other distortions that occur in practice such as over-modulation and varying fringe visibility. The proposed technique will be validated on both simulations and on a profile measurement of a pipe section.     

Optical correlation techniques in fluid dynamics

Three flow measurement techniques make use of fast digital correlators. The most widely spread is photon correlation velocimetry using crossed laser beams, and detecting Doppler shifted light scattered by small particles in the flow. Depending on the processing of the photon correlation output, this technique yields mean velocity, turbulence level, and even the detailed probability distribution of one velocity component. An improved data processing scheme is demonstrated on laminar vortex flow in a curved channel. In the second method, rate correlation based upon threshold crossings of a high pass filtered laser Doppler signal can be used to obtain velocity correlation functions. The most powerful set-up developed in our laboratory uses a phase locked loop type tracker and a multibit correlator to analyze time-dependent Taylor vortex flow. With two optical systems and trackers, cross-correlation functions reveal phase relations between different vortices. The last method makes use of refractive index fluctuations (eg in two phase flows) instead of scattering particles. Interferometry with bidirectional counting, and digital correlation and probability analysis, constitutes a new quantitative technique related to classical Schlieren methods. Measurements on a mixing flow of heated and cold air contribute new ideas to the theory of turbulent random phase screens.     

Laser Doppler velocimeter with optical frequency shifting

A bi-directional laser Doppler velocimeter utilizing optical frequency shifting has been developed. Optical frequency shifting is achieved by using a rotating radial grating. A high diffraction efficiency permits the system to be used in the fringe mode. The zero velocity frequency shift can be varied from 0.1 to 2.5 MHz with a stability better than 0.2%. Important applications are velocity measurements in reversing flows, highly turbulent flows, two-phase flows, and boundary layers. The system described may also be used for vibration analysis. Experimental results are presented.     

Quantitative three-dimensional holographic interferometry for flow field analysis

Holographic interferometry offers the potential for quantitative, wholefield analysis of three-dimensional compressible flows. The technique is non-intrusive, does not require the introduction of seeding particles, and records the entire flow information within the pulse duration of a Q-switched ruby laser (˜30ns). At present, however, holographic interferometry is mainly used qualitatively due to the practical restrictions of data recording, acquisition and processing.To address the potential of holographic flow analysis a prototype multi-channel interferometer has been designed and preliminary wind tunnel results have been obtained. The proposed configuration uses specular illumination which, unlike comparable diffuse systems, does not suffer from fringe localisation and speckle noise. Beam collimation and steering through the flow field is achieved in a single operation by the use of holographic optical elements (HOEs). The resulting design is compact, light efficient, has aberration compensation, and the recorded data are conducive to both tomographic analysis and direct comparison to computational fluid dynamics (CFD) predictions.Holograms have been recorded of simple two-dimensional and axisymmetric compressible flows, to compare the accuracy of holographic density measurements with data from conventional pressure sensors and CFD codes. Data extraction from the holograms, and the elimination of rigid body motion, was achieved using digital Fourier transform fringe analysis. The introduction of phase errors by image processing has been investigated by analysing simulated fringe patterns generated from a combination of experimental amplitude information and computer generated phase data.     

Digital Holography for Instantaneous Spray Diagnostics on a Plane

We present a measurement technique that is capable of simultaneously determining sizes and positions of multiple transparent droplets in a plane from scattered light features. The technique is largely independent of particle intensity and mutual obscuration. Reflected and refracted light from the droplets in a pulsed laser sheet is recorded holographically to yield the smallest possible probe volume and the largest possible number density. Larger droplets are best analyzed at the image plane; in this case, the droplets appear as two spots (glare points), whose separation is proportional to the droplet diameter. Smaller droplets are easier to analyze at an out‐of‐focus plane, where their images appear as fringe patterns whose spatial frequency is related to droplet size. Photographic techniques allow only one of these planes to be chosen and are therefore not suitable for multidisperse sprays. Optical holography allows to analyze arbitrary depths, but often suffers from low sensitivity and long analysis times. With digital holography, the spray images are captured digitally by a CCD camera and reconstructed numerically; as in optical holography, the particle reconstruction plane can be freely chosen a posteriori to optimize the measurement. We discuss the issues raised by the transition from holographic film to a CCD sensor as the recording medium, and demonstrate the capabilities of the digital technique.     

Automatic Young's fringe analysis in the source image plane

Typically Young's fringe pattern automatic analysis from a double-exposure image (e.g. a photograph) passes through an indirect processing stage on some intermediate parameter domain. Here, we propose a method based on a complicated image processing technique, operating directly with the source fringe image pixels, and providing remarkable accuracy and computational time. This method is intended for laser speckle velocimetry (LSV), particle image velovimetry (PIV), and digital image velocimetry (DIV) applications. Assuming a common fringe pattern model, we introduce a pre-processing stage to improve significantly the fringe discernment. A dynamic thresholding segmentation scheme, adjusted to the fringe spatial structure, follows to localize the fringes being quantitatively attributed with the corresponding eigenvectors. The algorithm has been tested on real patterns as well as on a set of artifically simulated images with pre-defined characteristics.     

Whole field spatial frequency analysis of double-or multiple-exposed PIV images

Speckle Velocimetry or high-image density PIV gives a velocity vector map of a twodimensional flow field by point-by-point spatial frequency analysis of local pattern at an interrogation spot in a double- or a multiple-exposed image of laser speckle or pseudo-speckle pattern generated by pulsed laser-light-sheet illuminations of a plane in the flow densely seeded with fine particles. The whole field spatial frequency analysis of the double- or multiple-exposed PIV image gives more useful information of the flow field. Optical Fourier transform is a conventional technique not only for the local spatial frequency analysis but for the whole field analysis. Filtering of spatial frequency is one of the typical techniques for the latter which can reconstruct a velocity contour or a component velocity contour map of the flow. Fundamentally this technique is a simple and efficient analogue method to get more information in the velocity field analysis of the flow than a digital image processing, but in practical applications the measurement is restricted to simple flows because of optical noise and low spatial resolution. In order to improve the technique, the fundamental characteristics of the filtering and the noise yielded in the filtering process must be investigated. Meanwhile, wavelet analysis can also be applied to the whole field spatial frequency analysis of PIV image. In this paper the filtering technique is examined by numerical convolution integral, and the results obtained are compared with ones obtained by the wavelet analysis.     

Absorption and Scattering of Light by Highly Concentrated Two‐phase Flows

The spray cone emerging during an extended metal atomization process (called spray forming) has been investigated in order to quantify the influence of highly concentrated multiphase flows on phase‐Doppler‐anemometry (PDA) measurements. Using this non‐intrusive, optical measurement technique not only the local particle size and velocity distributions of the spray can be obtained but also additional information about the mass flux in the multiphase flow. Since standard phase‐Doppler systems can be easily applied to low concentrated particle systems (spherical particles with smooth surfaces and an optical transparent continuous phase taken for granted) the application of this measurement technique to highly concentrated multiphase flows is more complex. Both the laser light propagating from the PDA device to the probe volume and the scattered one going backward to the PDA receiving system are disturbed by passing the highly concentrated multiphase flow. The resulting significant loss in signal quality especially concerns the measurement of the smaller particles of the spray because of their reduced silhouette (in comparison with the bigger ones). Thus, the detection of the smallest particles becomes partially impossible leading to measurement of a distorted diameter distribution of the entire particle collective. In this study the distortions of the measured distributions dependent on the particle number concentration as well as on the path length of the laser light are discussed.     

旗面周期摆动的实验研究

用实验方法研究了旗面周期摆动的运动过程,采用改进的算法优化了粒子图像测速仪测量结果,定量得了水洞中摆动旗面的近壁流场信息.通过选定旗面包络上的一个拐点,将其振幅作为特征长度重新计算旗面运动的Strouhal数.多组实验结果中,新的Strouhal数均为0.21左右,这与相同Reynolds数下圆柱绕的Strouhal数结果相近.     

Time-resolved tracking of a sound scatterer in a complex flow: nonstationary signal analysis and applications

It is known that ultrasound techniques yield nonintrusive measurements of hydrodynamic flows. For example, the study of the echoes produced by a large number of particles insonified by pulsed wavetrains has led to a now-standard velocimetry device. In this paper, a new technique for the measurement of the velocity of individual solid particles moving in fluid flows is proposed. It relies on the ability to resolve in time the Doppler shift of the sound scattered by the continuously insonified particle. For this signal-processing problem two classes of approaches can be used: time-frequency analysis and parametric high-resolution methods. In the first class the spectrogram and reassigned spectrogram is considered, and applied to detect the motion of a small bead settling in a fluid at rest. In nonstationary flows, methods in the second class are more robust. An approximated maximum likelihood (AML) technique has been adapted, coupled with a generalized Kalman filter. This method allows for the estimation of rapidly varying frequencies; the parametric nature of the algorithm also provides an estimate of the variance of the identified frequency parameters.     

条纹法提高成像分辨率的实验研究

 对利用条纹场照射目标以提高成像分辨率的方法进行了实验研究。条纹法提高成像分辨率的基本思想是,采用余弦条纹场照射目标,光学系统截止频率外的一部分高频分量将通过光学系统,通过对用多幅同频条纹场照射目标所获得的图像序列进行综合处理,可以获得超分辨率的图像。实验采用激光形成的干涉条纹场照射目标,共采用10幅余弦条纹场,各幅条纹场之间依次有1/10个周期的平移,对这10幅条纹场照射目标时所拍摄的图像进行综合处理,获得了分辨率提高的图像。实验结果证明了利用干涉条纹场照射目标获得超分辨率像这一方法的可行性。     

Simultaneous measurements of multiple flow velocity components using frequency modulated lasers and a single molecular absorption cell

Since unsteady, complex flow phenomena play an important role, optical measurements techniques are required for flow investigations, which provide simultaneous measurements of multiple velocity components. Doppler global velocimetry has this potential. It is a flow measurement technique, where the Doppler shift of scattered light is measured by a molecular absorption cell for frequency-to-intensity conversion. However, novel Doppler global velocimeters with laser frequency modulation were only used for single component measurements yet. In order to enhance such a system for the simultaneous measurement of multiple components, a concept based on frequency division multiplexing is introduced for the first time. Besides multiple lasers, only a single molecular absorption cell and a single detector unit is required. Two-component measurements of velocity profiles from nozzle flows are presented as a proof of principle. The designed measurement system provides high measurement rates of up to 20 kHz, which is three orders of magnitude higher than for typical Doppler global velocimetry setups.     

Solid state and fibre optic laser doppler velocimeters

Laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV) has become established as an important technique for the measurement of velocities of macroscopic objects and fluids: the dynamic range is large (～10^-6-10⁵ ms^-1) and the measurement is absolute and non-invasive. However, the size and cost of LDV has restricted its use in some areas. This paper presents two separate approaches to reduce these problems: we describe a compact LDV system incorporating a solid state laser diode and also an investigation of the feasibility of a fibre optic LDV system in which the conventional optical components are replaced by fibre optics.The experimental arrangement used for the solid state LDV system was of the Doppler difference type; i.e. a system of parallel interference fringes is focused in the measurement volume, so that a particle passing through this volume produces a scattered light signal which is intensity modulated. In its simplest form, the technique cannot determine the direction of motion of the particle, but this difficulty may be overcome by causing the fringes to ‘move’ within the measurement volume with known velocity. In the present experiments, the laser output frequency was modulated by modulating its drive current; since the path lengths of the two beams interfering in the measurement volume were unequal, fringe motion was achieved.The fibre optic LDV experiment was also of the Doppler difference type, and it was demonstrated that the necessary stabilised interference fringe system could be projected using a fibre optic system. An electronic servo was devised to compensate for the random differential thermal drifts in the fibres which would otherwise have produced unacceptable drifts in the fringe pattern.     

Mach-Zehnder干涉仪条纹成像多普勒激光雷达风速反演及视场展宽技术

相对于传统多普勒鉴频器Fabry-Perot干涉仪, Mach-Zehnder干涉仪(MZI)具有透过率高、直线条纹易于探测、可进行视场展宽等优点. 本文设计了基于条纹成像MZI的非相干多普勒测风激光雷达系统, 构建了风速反演的数学模型, 利用MZI视场展宽技术优化了激光雷达系统的性能. 数值仿真实现了MZI鉴频系统干涉条纹图样的理想输出, 采用SineSqr函数拟合法获取了高精度的多普勒频移前后干涉条纹的移动距离, 并通过视场补偿减小了入射角对MZI光程差的影响, 从而实现视场展宽. 结果表明: 采用SineSqr函数拟合法可获得在±100 m·s^-1的径向风速范围内<0.45 m·s^-1的风速误差, 克服了条纹重心法反演风速不稳定性的缺点; 视场展宽技术在不降低鉴频性能的情况下, 能最大补偿1°的视场角. MZI条纹成像多普勒激光雷达应用技术的探讨将为中高层大气风速激光雷达测量系统的实际开发奠定良好的基础. 关键词： 激光雷达 条纹成像Mach-Zehnder干涉仪 风速反演 视场补偿     

全光纤速度干涉仪设计及应用

针对冲击波物理与爆轰物理等研究领域中对高速运动物体进行连续速度测量的需求,设计了一种全光纤速度干涉仪.该干涉仪采用单模光纤作为光传输和延迟元件,对t和t-τ两个时刻由于速度变化而引起的多普勒差拍信号进行检测.由于两个时刻的两束光信号对应的待测物体速度变化不大,因而两者几乎有相等的频移量,从而大大降低了差拍信号频率.并且,通过光纤长度的改变,灵活调节条纹常量（τ值）,使差拍信号频率不超过记录系统的带宽,从原理上解决记录系统响应带宽受限问题,拓展测速的上限.单模光纤的采用,对漫反射光起到了较好的选模作用,使干涉仪实现了对漫反射靶的测量.实验设计了1.5 m·s-1和150 m·s-1两种条纹常量,对低速过程的霍普金森杆实验和高速过程的激光驱动实验分别进行了测试,取得较好结果,证明了该干涉测试技术的有效性.     

Coherent Scattering by Multiple Particles in Phase Doppler Interferometry

A theoretical model has been developed for studying the response of the phase Doppler interferometer when multiple particles are simultaneously present within the measurement probe volume. The developed model incorporates the geometrical optics theory for describing the coherent interaction between the scattered light signals of multiple particles, eachhaving different size, velocity, trajectory, and arrival time. The resulting Doppler signal is processed by a theoretical signal processor which can simulate the performance characteristic of different signal processing schemes that are widely used in phase Doppler interferometry, namely, zero-crossing counter, covariance, autocorrelation and DFT parocessors. The application of the developed model for studying the coherent scattering by two particles has been specifically addressed in this paper. It has been shown that a DFT processor can be used to simultaneously measure the size and velocity of the two particles in most instances. However, for more than two particles, the signal processing scheme becomes more complex because of a quadratic increase in the beat frequency components.     

The development of an optical Doppler technique for measuring flow velocities

For a generalized scheme of LDV, the expressions describing the light intensity distribution in a photo-receiver plane with regard to the size of the scattering particles have been calculated using Fourier optics.The LDV signal should be considered as a narrow-band stochastic process representing the sum of random phase radio frequency pulses arising from each light scattering particle. Then the expected error of the mean velocity measurement is equal to half the reciprocal of the number of interference fringes squared and the input signal-to-noise ratio is equal to the square root of the product of Doppler frequency, fringe number and averaging time.The device developed by the authors includes d.c. optical signal compensation. The device is described and the results of its use are given.     

A particle timing laser velocity meter

A fluid velocity meter is described; this operates by measuring the time taken for individual dust particles carried in the flow to travel between two points in space. A laser is used to produce two light beams parallel to one another and approximately normal to the flow direction. These beams are focused to two point or line foci in the region of interest: these foci are separated by a distance of the order of 1 mm in the flow direction. A particle crossing both foci in succession gives two scattered light pulses, and the time interval between these is measured by an oscilloscope or digital chronometer. The particles are natural dust particles occurring in the laboratory air or tap water. As in Doppler and fringe anemometers, the advantage of the laser is its spatial coherence: it enables extreme intensity to be obtained in small, well-defined regions. The instrument might be described as a fringe anemometer in which all the light is concentrated into the two end fringes, the others being eliminated.