Postexposure evolution of a photoinduced grating in a polymer material with phenanthrenequinone

The specific features of the postexposure evolution of photoinduced (holographic) gratings in a model medium that consists of poly(methyl methacrylate) with distributed phenanthrenequinone and is characterized by a diffusion enhancement are investigated using the holographic relaxation technique. It is established that the evolution process occurs in four stages controlled by different mechanisms: (i) initial nonmonotonic changes governed by the diffusion of an intermediate radical photoreaction product and its transformation into a stable product due to attachment to the macromolecules, (ii) hologram enhancement through the diffusion of phenanthrenequinone molecules, (iii) rapid partial degradation associated with the spatially confined motion of polymer chain segments, and (iv) slow degradation as a result of macromolecular diffusion. In the course of polymer relaxation after a temperature jump, the processes associated with the mobility of molecules are retarded and the depth of rapid degradation decreases. The effective diffusion coefficient characterizing the destruction of reflection gratings is smaller than that for transmission gratings. This can be explained by the spatial inhomogeneity of the polymer.     

Holographic volume gratings in a glass-like polymer material

We demonstrate a possibility to write efficient and thermally stable volume holographic gratings in a glassy polymer material based on PMMA and phenanthrenequinone with layers prepared, by casting the liquid solution of ingredients on a substrate and drying to a solid state. A high concentration of phenanthrenequinone (up to 4 mol. %) makes it possible to use photosensitive layers of lower thicknesses (50–180 μm) for the recording of efficient holographic gratings. The exposing is followed by a thermal amplification of the grating due to diffusion of residual phenanthrenequinone molecules and fixation by an incoherent optical illumination. We present experimental temporal curves of the refractive index modulation and diffraction efficiency both under the exposure and the heating process. The behavior of the gratings under temperatures up to 140 °C has been studied. PACS 42.40.Eq; 42.70.Jk; 42.70.Ln     

Optimal period for diffraction gratings recorded in polymer dispersed liquid crystals

New diffusion model of recording diffraction gratings in the media of PDLC is described in which besides diffusion of monomer molecules also diffusion of polymer molecules and non-locality of diffusion coefficient are taken into account. It lets us to explain why diffraction efficiency is low for low and high values of intensities of grating recording beam. With the considered model, we have theoretically got optimal period for grating recording.     

Angular Selectivity of Amplitude-Phase Holographic Gratings in Polymer Material with Phenanthrenequinone

The values of the amplitudes of the refractive index and absorption coefficient modulations in volume hologram gratings, which were recorded in a polymer material with phenanthrenequinone (PQ), have been determined by the results of the approximation of the angular selectivity contours, which were measured at wavelengths of 450, 473, 532, and 633 nm before and after the development of holograms, resulting from the diffusion of PQ molecules in a glassy polymer. Immediately after recording, before the diffusion development, the holograms are mixed amplitude-phase in the PQ absorption spectral region and phase for the red light, which is not absorbed by it (633 nm), and become purely phase during the development regardless of the wavelength. The shape of the selectivity contour of the undeveloped hologram indicates the counterphase between the modulations of the absorption coefficient and refractive index, illustrating the concept of complementary gratings, on which the principle of hologram formation in the material under consideration is based.

     

Sub-micrometer patterns of molecular photo-switches using laser induced molecular implantation techniques (LIMIT)

Using laser induced molecular implantation techniques (LIMIT) in thin polymer films highly space selective patterning of photochromic molecules has been created of 800 nm dimensions. In this way diffraction gratings have been fabricated which operate as photo-switching devices. These transient gratings are permanent molecular implants in a polymer films that can be UV-irradiation activated or thermally deactivated. No further grating writing is required for this transient switching effect once the permanent implantation has been made.     

Simultaneous process of embossing and poling at elevated temperatures: a simple technique for nonlinear grating formation in polymer films

A simple technique for fabrication of nonlinear gratings in polymer films, based on simultaneous embossing and poling, is proposed and demonstrated. A master grating consisting of a metal electrode with a dielectric die was fabricated and used for repeated embossing of the grating structures into nonlinear optical polymers at elevated temperatures. At the same time, we applied high voltage to the polymer films to induce second-order nonlinearity. The grating profile and the nonlinearity were estimated, as well as the mass productivity of nonlinear gratings.     

Dark diffusional enhancement of holographic multiplexed gratings in phenanthrenequinone doped poly（methyl methacrylate） photopolymer

In this paper, we experimentally investigate the dark diffusional enhancement of the optimized multiplexed grating in the phenanthrenequinone doped poly (methyl methacrylate) (PQ-PMMA) photopolymer. The possibility of improving the holographic characteristics of the material through the dark enhancement is demonstrated. The optimal preillumination exposure and the optimal time interval between exposures are extracted to obtain the optimized diffraction efficiency, and their values are 3.4×10³ mJ/cm² and 2 min, respectively. The dark enhancement of the multiplexed grating is presented as an effective method to improve the response region and the dynamic range and to prevent saturation of the material. The dependence of the phenanthrenequinone concentration on the increment of the refractive index modulation is quantitatively studied, which provides a significant basis for improving the homogeneity in the multiplexed gratings using a quantitative strategy. Finally, a simple experimental procedure using the dark enhancement is introduced to improve the homogeneity of the diffraction efficiency and to avoid the complex schedule exposure.     

Plasmonic structure generation by laser illumination of silica colloid spheres deposited onto prepatterned polymer-bimetal films

Plasmonic structures are prepared on bimetal films evaporated onto glass substrates applying a multi-step process, and atomic force microscopy is utilized to study the structures after each step. Sub-micrometer gratings are generated on polycarbonate films spin-coated onto silver-gold bimetal layers by interference lithography (IL) applying the fourth harmonics of a Nd:YAG laser. These polymer gratings are used as prepatterned templates in order to deposit silica colloid spheres by spin-coating. It is shown that the conditions of periodic silica sphere-array formation along the template valleys are sufficiently large grating modulation depth, appropriate ratio of silica sphere diameter to grating period, and optimized speed of spinning. The periodic silica sphere arrays are illuminated by a homogeneous KrF excimer laser beam, and periodically arrayed sub-wavelength holes are drilled into bimetal films via colloid sphere lithography (CSL). The characteristic dimensions of the resulted plasmonic structures are defined by the polymer grating period and by the silica colloid sphere diameter. Attenuated total reflection spectroscopy is performed exciting plasmons on different metal-dielectric interfacial structures by the second harmonic of a continuous Nd:YAG laser. The polar and azimuthal angle dependent grating-coupling and scattering effects of the complex periodic structures on the resonance characteristic of plasmons is demonstrated.     

Photochemical kinetics for holographic grating formation in phenanthrenequinone doped poly (methyl methacrylate) photopolymer

The photochemical kinetics of phenanthrenequinone (PQ) doped poly (methyl methacrylate) photopolymer in holographic recording was studied theoretically and experimentally. The diffusion of PQ molecules during holographic recording was negligible because of its small diffusion coefficient at room temperature. A photochemical reaction kinetics model of PQ/PMMA was established. The analytical expressions for the temporal variations of transmittance and diffraction efficiency were derived. By fitting the experimental curves, some parameters related with the polymer components were obtained by the proposed model, which can be used to analyze the photochemical process and will be helpful to the optimization of material preparation.     

Effect of polarization on efficiency of volume Bragg grating filter

<正>Diffraction efficiency of volume Bragg grating,whose period is in the same order as the incident wavelength, is related to the polarization direction of the incident linear polarized beam.When two linearly polarized recording beams with the same polarization direction are used for recording volume Bragg gratings in a photopolymer with diffusion amplification,the azimuth of polarization of the reconstruction beam influences the diffraction efficiency of the grating.When the probe beam is linearly polarized and oriented orthogonally to the grating vectors,the±1-order diffraction beams are also linearly polarized with polarization direction parallel to that of the probe beam.According to the results,a two-dimensional nonspatial optical filter consisting of the volume Bragg gratings would achieve significantly higher efficiency.     

Peculiarities of spontaneous grating generation in light-sensitive waveguide layers during holographic grating formation

The generation of spontaneous (noise) gratings during the simultaneous formation of a holographic grating in thin (on the order of the cutoff thickness of the TE₀ waveguide mode) AgCl-Ag films by two laser beams with λ = 532 nm and polarization vectors that make an angle of 45° with the plane of incidence have been studied. The electron microscopy images and diffraction patterns have revealed a significant difference of the spontaneous-grating structure from the structure obtained under irradiation by one laser beam. The spontaneous gratings have a significant spread in the directions of their wave vector, and the diffraction pattern (recorded using a probe beam with λ = 337 nm) has the form of a bundle of diverging arcs that intersect at one point. This difference is caused by self-diffraction from the holographic grating, which is responsible for the main diffraction peaks with odd orders, the growth of spontaneous gratings because of the interference of the beams diffracted by the holographic grating with the waveguide TE₀ modes scattered in the film, and silver transport to the interference minima. The diffraction patterns are quantitatively analyzed and the period of the new (formed under two-beam irradiation) spontaneous gratings is calculated. The calculation results are in good agreement with the experimental data.     

The study of polystyrene-fullerene solid-phase composites

Polystyrene-based films containing from 0 to 45 mol % of C₆₀ fullerene are investigated. It is found that the introduction of fullerene increases the molecular packing density of polystyrene chains, thus affecting the transport of small molecules through the polymer films. Gas diffusion through the composite films is slower than through the polystyrene films, while the gas-distributing properties of the composites are higher. The dielectric relaxation method shows that the solution-grown films retain the cluster state of fullerene. When the films containing more than 0.15 mol % of fullerene are heated above the glass transition temperature of polystyrene away from air, the relaxation time of the α transition in polystyrene is found to increase. This effect is associated with strong chain interaction via fullerene molecules incorporated into polystyrene-C₆₀ complexes. The NMR spectroscopy method allows us to observe the typical changes in the composites.     

New fabrication method for anisotropic gratings formed in photocrosslinkable polymer liquid crystals

We present a new fabrication method, called two-step ultraviolet exposure, to prepare anisotropic gratings in photocrosslinkable polymer liquid crystal films. Using the controllability of the reorientation direction of mesogenic molecules, anisotropic phase gratings, in which the mesogenic molecules were periodically modulated in orthogonal directions, were prepared by the use of one grating photomask. The resultant gratings diffract the light and convert the polarization states at the same time, and have applications as diffraction optical devices. PACS 42.65.Hw; 42.70.Df; 42.70.Nq; 78.20.-e; 78.40.Me     

Coupling characteristics of laterally coupled gratings with slots

Laterally-coupled ridge-waveguide distributed feedback lasers fabricated without epitaxial regrowth steps have the advantages of process simplification and low cost. We present a laterally coupled grating with slots. The slots etched between the ridge and grating area are designed to suppress the lateral diffusion of carriers and to reduce the influence of the aspect-ratio-dependent-etching effect on the grating morphology in the etching process. Moreover, the grating height in this structure can be decreased to lower the aspect ratio significantly, which is advantageous over the conventional laterally coupled ridge waveguide gratings. The effects of five main structural parameters on the coupling characteristics of gratings are studied by MODE Solutions. It is found that varying the lateral width of the grating can be used as an effective way to tune the coupling strength; narrow slots (100 nm and 300 nm) and wide ridge (2 μm-4 μm) promote the stability of grating coupling coefficient and device performance. It is important to note that the grating bottom should be fabricated precisely. The comparative study of carrier distribution and mode field distribution shows that the introduction of narrow slots can strengthen the competitive advantage and stability of the fundamental mode.     

Application of metal nanoparticles/porous silicon diffraction grating in rhodamine 6 G fluorescence signal enhancement

We present a technique for fabricating a fluorescence enhancement device composed of metal nanoparticles(NPs) and porous silicon(PSi) diffraction grating.The fluorescence emission enhancement properties of the PSi and the fluorescence enhancement of the probe molecules are studied on PSi gratings.The fluorescence enhancement of the probe molecules on a fluorescence enhancement device is further improved through the deposition of metal NPs onto the PSi grating.In comparison to metal NP/PSi devices,metal NP periodic distributions can produce a stronger fluorescence enhancement that couples with the PSi grating fluorescence enhancement to achieve an overall three-fold enhancement of the fluorescence intensity.     

Dynamics of conformations,hydrogen bonds and translational diffusion of poly(methacrylic acid) in aqueous solution and the concentration transition in MD simulations

The dynamic behaviour of chain conformations, hydrogen bonds and translational diffusion of aqueous poly(methacrylic acid) (PMA) solution as a function of polymer volume fraction Φ_p across dilute to concentrated regimes inclusive of the pure polymer amorphous state was studied by molecular dynamics simulations. The behaviour of the relaxation time (τ) of the backbone dihedral angle auto-correlation function (ACF) reveals slower relaxation at higher level of polymer concentration and the existence of a concentration-driven relaxation transition for the aqueous polymer solution which occurs in the polymer volume fraction range, specifically 54% < Φ_p < 82% for this system. The relaxation constant τ for backbone dihedral angle exhibits a linear variation with Φ_p, indicating a first-order kinetic transition. The intermittent ACF for decay of the H-bond correlation shows that H-bonds among water molecules relax faster than those of the PMA–PMA and PMA–water type. The relaxation rate of PMA–water H-bonds shows a decrease up to Φ_p = 72% and becomes faster at Φ_p = 82% due to the confining influence of neighbouring PMA chains. PMA–water and water–water H-bond dynamics show transitions around Φ_p = 72% PMA. With increase in Φ_p PMA diffusion coefficient decreases exponentially and water diffusion coefficient decreases linearly, in agreement with experimental observations using fluorescence and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopic studies.     

Measurement of the electro-optic coefficient of polymer thin films with better spatial resolution

A method for measuring the electro-optic coefficient of polymer films on the basis of an asymmetry Fabry–Perot cavity is introduced. The sample layer is located between two aluminium layers, which are deposited on glass substrates by thermal evaporation. This layer structure is objected to a laser beam, and a variable voltage is applied to the aluminium films resulting in a modulation of the transmitted laser power. The electro-optic coefficient γ₁₃ of the poled polymer film can be calculated by evaluating the Fabry–Perot equation. The spatial resolution is tested with a polymer film that was poled by a needle corona discharge in air through a metal grating with a period of 120 μm. By scanning the sample plate in the direction perpendicular to the grating lines, the spatial resolution is also demonstrated according to the spacing of the poled structure.     

Light sensitivity of photoconducting polymer systems with polymethine dyes based on derivatives of 2(4)-methylquinoline and indole

The photosensitivity of conducting polymer films with newly synthesized polymethine dyes is investigated. It is demonstrated that the photosensitivity of polymer films based on poly(o-hydroxyamide) with transport indole molecules forming intermolecular complexes with dyes is two or three times higher than the photosensitivity of the polymer films containing indole as a structural component of the dye. The introduction of the indole-containing dye into the photoconducting poly(vinylcarbazole) leads to an increase in the photo-conductivity by one and a half orders of magnitude. In this case, the quantum yield increases to η = 0.085. A correlation is revealed between the electronic structure of the dyes, the characteristics of the photoconduction in the materials under investigation, and the mechanisms of charge relaxation in the samples. An increase in the photoconductivity of the films results in the crossover from the drift mechanism of charge relaxation to the relaxation mechanism associated with intrinsic electrical conduction.     

Area-coded effective medium structures, a new type of grating design

We propose a new way to design gratings with desired diffraction properties by using subwavelength feature sizes perpendicular to the ordinary superwavelength grating period. This is different from well-known one-dimensional binary-blazed gratings that use a structuring along the grating period and thus opens new flexibility in generating arbitrary effective-index distributions in the direction of the grating period. Since the subwavelength features form contiguous areas, they are called area-coded effective medium structures (ACES). Compared with well-known binary subwavelength structures in two-dimensional arrangements consisting of pillars, ACES are more stable and have comparable efficiency properties. As an example we show how to design in principle a four-level area-coded effective medium grating, compare the efficiency of ACES with binary-blazed and échelette gratings, and optimize the subwavelength period of ACES.     

光栅周期包含的Bragg层数对Bragg型凹面衍射光栅的影响

单个衍射光栅周期所包含的Bragg周期层数是连续Bragg齿型凹面衍射光栅的主要参数之一,该参数可改变光栅齿结构,对凹面衍射光栅的分辨力.自由光谱范围及衍射效率有重要影响.本文通过理论分析与仿真模拟,对比了4种不同层数的Bragg型凹面衍射光栅的特性参数.研究结果表明:在衍射光栅尺寸不变的情况下,改变单个光栅周期包含的Bragg周期层数不会显著提高器件主衍射级次的分辨力;单个光栅周期包含的Bragg周期层数与光栅可衍射的级次数成正相关.单周期层数的Bragg凹面衍射光栅的主衍射级次效率最高,其可衍射的级次数最少,且其他衍射级次分散的能量最少;增加单个光栅周期所包含的Bragg周期层数会降低主衍射级次的自由光谱范围.该研究对于设计低插损、高分辨率、宽工作波段的波分复用器或光栅光谱仪具有重要的指导意义.