Non-Destructive Characterization of Subsurface Residual Stress Fields and Correlation with Microstructural Conditions in a Shot-Peened Inconel Component

Shot-peening is an important surface treatment used in a preventative way to guard against fatigue failures. The residual stress state imparted by shot-peening deters the formation and propagation of surface cracks. In this paper, we describe the measurement of residual stresses in an Inconel, IN100, sample using lattice strains measured using High Energy X-ray Diffraction (HEXD) and a Bi-Scale Optimization Method (BSOM). HEXD enabled rapid, non-destructive lattice strain measurements over a large region of the sample. Subsurface strains were obtained using a conical slit setup. The BSOM utilizes a macroscale representation of the sample and a spherical harmonic-based crystal scale representation of crystal orientation space at each experimental point (diffraction volume). A roughly biaxial stress state was predicted with a von Mises equivalent stress between 300 MPa and 400 MPa near the surface. The layer of material with high residual stress induced by shot-peening was found to be approximately 1 mm thick. Diffraction peak width, EBSD, and microhardness measurements were also made on the same sample, which rendered more qualitative measures of the plasticity-related effects of the shot-peening induced residual stress field. All of these measurements show a dimishing shot-peening plasticity with the increasing depth.     

球形压痕的残余变形分析

球形压痕技术在材料力学属性，诸如硬度，弹性模量等的测量中得到了广泛的应用。应用Twyman-Green及云纹干涉法并配合相移技术，本文对IN783合金进行了一系列的球形压痕实验研究，并对残余压痕的面内（u,v）及离面（w）变形场进行了定量测量和分析。应用面内变形测量结果，进一步对试件表面的应力一应变分布进行了分析和计算，并在离面变形场的基础上，确立了压痕周围的弹塑性边界，从而进一步应用面内的分析结果，得到材料的屈服强度。应用压痕实验的接触半径和压力并配合Tabor经验公式，本文进一步得到了材料的应力应变曲线。实验结果与已知的IN783合金相吻合。对所涉及的一系列压痕实验，本文也进行了二维有限元分析并得到了比较一致的结果。     

Plasticity Effects in the Hole-Drilling Residual Stress Measurement in Peened Surfaces

The incremental hole-drilling technique (IHD) is a widely established and accepted technique to determine residual stresses in peened surfaces. However, high residual stresses can lead to local yielding, due to the stress concentration around the drilled hole, affecting the standard residual stress evaluation, which is based on linear elastic equations. This so-called plasticity effect can be quantified by means of a plasticity factor, which measures the residual stress magnitude with respect to the approximate onset of plasticity. The observed resultant overestimation of IHD residual stresses depends on various factors, such as the residual stress state, the stress gradients and the material’s strain hardening. In peened surfaces, equibiaxial stresses are often found. For this case, the combined effect of the local yielding and stress gradients is numerically and experimentally analyzed in detail in this work. In addition, a new plasticity factor is proposed for the evaluation of the onset of yielding around drilled holes in peened surface layers. This new factor is able to explain the agreement and disagreement found between the IHD residual stresses and those determined by X-ray diffraction in shot-peened steel surfaces.     

长期持荷工况下钢管混凝土构件的抗撞击性能

为研究长期荷载作用对钢管混凝土构件抗撞击性能的影响,利用有限元软件ABAQUS建立了长期荷载与侧向撞击荷载作用的耦合分析模型以及撞击后剩余受压承载力计算模型。对比了一次加载模式下和长期荷载作用下构件遭受撞击的动力响应,采用剩余受压承载力系数量化分析了两种加载模式下构件的剩余受压承载力。典型的有限元模型分析表明:相较于一次加载模式,考虑长期荷载作用时撞击力峰值和平台值下降,撞击时间延长,构件跨中挠度增大,但撞击力对构件做功基本保持不变;考虑长期荷载作用的撞击过程轴向荷载做功比一次加载模式增大,增加的功主要通过外钢管的塑性变形耗散,核心混凝土贡献较小;长期荷载作用下构件的剩余受压承载力系数均低于一次加载模式,撞击条件相同时,一次加载模式下撞击后可以继续承载的构件在考虑长期荷载作用时可能会丧失承载能力;提高含钢率和钢材屈服强度、降低长期荷载比可有效减小长期荷载对构件抗撞击性能的不利影响。     

Experimental methods of X-ray stress analysis

A technique is described for measuring residual stresses in steels and composite materials by X-ray diffraction. Specimen preparation, X-ray diffractometer alignment, diffraction-peak location, and the determination of the elastic modulus, Poisson's ratio and stress factor are covered. Application examples include measurement of heat-treating and shot-peening stresses in steels and grinding and temperature stresses in WC-Co composites.     

材料动态强度直接测量的磁压剪实验技术及应用

提出一种用于直接测量动载荷下材料强度的新方法,即磁驱动压剪联合加载实验技术。从理论和数值计算上分析了压/剪联合作用下材料的应力偏量与屈服强度关系,计算斜波加载下压/剪联合作用时应力偏量与屈服强度的时空演化特性,给出材料强度数值的计算方法。并基于自行研制的强脉冲电流装置和10 T准静态磁场发生器,利用多点双光源外差位移干涉仪(dual laser heterodyne velocimetry, DLHV),开展磁压剪实验对2种铝样品的动态强度进行测量,得到不同加载压力下铝样品的强度。结果表明:磁驱动压/剪联合加载技术为材料的高压强度直接测量提供了一种新途径,是可靠的实验技术。     

Determining plastic properties of a material with residual stress by using conical indentation

Instrumented indentation is a popular method for determining mechanical properties in engineering materials. However, there are several shortcomings and challenges involved with correctly interpreting the test results. We propose here a unified method for evaluating instrumented indentation testing conducted on a material that exhibits both strain hardening under yielding and which is subjected to uniform, equi-biaxial residual stresses. The proposed method is based on extensive finite element simulations that relate the parameter-space spanned by Young’s modulus, yield strength, strain hardening and residual stress, to the response from the indentation test. Based on reverse analysis, the proposed method can be used to determine two unknown quantities, such as yield strength and strain hardening. The technique involves utilizing the concept of representative strain and plural indenter-shapes.     

Plastic strip model of cracked weld joint with residual stresses

The effect of residual stresses on the fracture behavior of a cracked weld joint is studied by making use of the continuous dislocation formulation. Considered are the plastic zone length of the strip model zone and the opening displacement of a crack that is normal to both weld line and base metal boundary; they depend on the character of the yield stresses for the base metal (BM), weld material (WM), and heat affected zone (HAZ). The crack driving force is found to increase with the tensile residual stress while crack initiation and growth are suppressed if the residual stress is compressive. Moreover, the plastic zone and crack opening displacement are found to decrease linearly with the HAZ yield strength as the HAZ width is increased for HAZ yield strength greater than that of BM.     

An empirical methodlogy to estimate a local yield stress in work-hardened surface layers

A methodology is proposed for estimating the local yield stress in work-hardened surface layers. It is based on the concept of in-depth normalized variation of hardness and x-ray diffraction peak width, both of which measure the strain-hardening attained by the materials' surface-treated layers due to, for example, shot-peening. Its principle is directly founded on the classical hardness theory. To study the evolution of those values with plastic deformation, specimens of five steels with different mechanical properties were subjected to interrupted tensile tests. The tests were performed at successive increments of plastic strain, until fracture occurred. The specimens were loaded and unloaded in increments of about 2% true strain. After each plastic strain increment, hardness and diffraction peak width were measured. It was observed that the variations of diffraction peak width and hardness are related to the material's strain-hardening, and their normalized variations can be considered proportional to the normalized variation of the material's yield stress. Thus, where the yield stress of the bulk material, its hardness or a characteristic diffraction peak width value, and their relative variations along the hardened layers, are known, an empirical expression could be used to estimate the local yield stress as a function of the treated depth.     

X-ray diffraction study of the fatigue behavior of a shot-peened aluminum-lithium alloy

The effect of different shot-peening treatments on the cyclic fluctuating bending fatigue behavior of a new aluminum-lithium alloy (the 2091) has been investigated. The residual-stresses in-depth profiles have been defined just after the shot peening using mainly the X-ray diffraction method. To reach a given depth inside the material, the surface layer was removed by electro-polishing. The acquired data had to be then corrected in order to account for the redistribution of the stresses during the polishing. Furthermore, this alloy contains up to 15-percent intermetallic precipitates. Moreover, the X-rays penetrate deeply inside the material (23 m). For these reasons, a special procedure, based on a self-consistent micromechanical scheme, has been developed to correct the acquired data. The stress profiles obtained by this procedure are compared to those obtained by other mechanical experimental methods and those calculated by a theoretical shot-peening method. Shot peening improves the life of the material but the surface residual stresses are partially released during the first cycles of fatigue and are then quickly stabilized.Paper was presented at the 1994 SEM International Conference on Residual Stresses (ICRS4) held in Baltimore, MD on June 8–10.     

香港大屿山残坡积土的残余强度试验研究

粘性土的残余强度是边坡稳定性评价、桩基与土的相互作用机理研究及填土边坡设计中的重要参数。本文在综述大量文献的基础上，结合香港大屿山火山岩风化残坡积土的残余强度试验研究，分析了残余强度的测试方法和影响残余强度的因素。研究结果表明，残余强度与有效法向应力间具有明显的非线性关系；与单剪测试结果相比，多级剪测试结果明显偏高。     

复合材料层合板冲击损伤及剩余强度分析方法

应用三维逐渐累积损伤理论和分析技术对层合板的冲击及冲击后含损伤的层合板在拉伸载荷下损伤扩展的全过程进行分析.分析中取消了以往研究者对冲击后层合板损伤状态所做的人为假设,将冲击后层合板的实际损伤状态直接用于剩余拉伸强度研究.通过与已有文献结果比较,验证了方法的正确性.     

SiC/AL板的焊接残余应力分析

SiC/AL功能双材料由陶瓷和金属组成,由于该材料中的SiC具有较高的抗高温能力,AL具有较高的强度,因此在航空构件中得到运用,该双材料中孔洞焊接过程中的残余应力直接影响到双材料的性能。本文采用有限元分析手段中的死活单元技术对焊接过程进行了数值模拟计算,得到了该焊接过程的残余应力分布,并与常用的钢材焊接残余应力进行对比分析。本文同时对采用弹性复变方法和积分方程分析手段得到的焊接残余应力解析解的适用性进行了阐述。     

小冲杆试验技术研究现状与展望

小冲杆试验(small punchtest,SPT)技术是一种应用于工业设备剩余寿命预测和结构完整性评定的新技术.其特点是只需要在设备的表面刮取少量的材料作为试样,然后用小冲杆试验便可以确定该在役材料的弹性模量、 屈服强度、塑性性能、 抗拉强度、 韧-脆转变温度、 断裂韧度、蠕变性能和黏塑性性能等各种力学性能和损伤程度,从而为结构的剩余寿命预测和完整性评定提供可靠的依据. 此外,该技术的取样和试验都相当简单易行, 试件取样后无须对设备修复.该技术自20世纪80年代初提出以来, 已经有了长足的进展,在美国、欧洲、日本和澳洲的核反应堆和电站设备的评定中得到应用,其相应的规范也在建立之中.该文旨在对国内外在该领域的研究成果作一个综述,并对该技术如何在工程实践中推广应用,以及建立中国标准提出相应的建议.      

含水率和围压对安家岭泥岩峰后力学特性影响的试验研究

为分析含水率和围压对泥岩峰后力学特性的影响,从山西安家岭矿取泥岩,制成不同含水率的5组试样,在YAW2000电液伺服试验机上开展了三轴试验,获得了不同含水率泥岩试样三轴全程应力应变曲线,使用激光共聚焦显微镜观测了泥岩增水过程中微观结构变化。利用试验结果,分析了围压和含水率对泥岩峰值强度、残余强度、弹性模量、破坏应变和脆性模量的影响规律和泥岩增水过程中微观结构的变化规律。引入脆性模量系数和强度退化指数来描述围压对泥岩峰后强度退化过程和残余强度的影响,与FLAC中的SS模型结合,建立了考虑围压影响的泥岩应变软化力学模型,模拟了围压对泥岩应变软化行为的影响。研究结果表明:(1)随着围压增加,泥岩的峰值强度、偏应力峰值、破坏应变和残余强度都增长,峰后强度降低速率趋缓,强度退化指数和脆性模量系数可以较好地描述围压对泥岩残余强度和峰后强度退化过程的影响。(2)泥岩增水过程中,岩样内微裂隙及尺寸增长,泥岩的力学性质劣化。随着含水率增加,泥岩的弹性模量、峰值强度和残余强度降低,破坏应变增长。含水率与泥岩的弹性模量、峰值强度和破坏应变之间近似服从线性关系。(3)本文基于脆性模量系数的岩石应变软化模型能较好地描述三轴压缩泥岩的全程变形行为。     

Scaling laws of nanoporous gold under uniaxial compression: Effects of structural disorder on the solid fraction,elastic Poisson's ratio,Young's modulus and yield strength

In this work the relationship between the structural disorder and the macroscopic mechanical behavior of nanoporous gold under uniaxial compression was investigated, using the finite element method. A recently proposed model based on a microstructure consisting of four-coordinated spherical nodes interconnected by cylindrical struts, whose node positions are randomly displaced from the lattice points of a diamond cubic lattice, was extended. This was done by including the increased density as result of the introduced structural disorder. Scaling equations for the elastic Poisson's ratio, the Young's modulus and the yield strength were determined as functions of the structural disorder and the solid fraction. The extended model was applied to identify the elastic–plastic behavior of the solid phase of nanoporous gold. It was found, that the elastic Poisson's ratio provides a robust basis for the calibration of the structural disorder. Based on this approach, a systematic study of the size effect on the yield strength was performed and the results were compared to experimental data provided in literature. An excellent agreement with recently published results for polymer infiltrated samples of nanoporous gold with varying ligament size was found.     

由一个实例引发的对莫尔理论和双剪统一强度理论的改进

以某型火炮身管设计为例,采用双剪统一强度理论对火炮身管的壁厚进行了设计。然而,在火炮身管强度计算中得出了如下结论:当身管外径平方与内径平方之比小于1+b时,若材料的其它参数不变,材料的压缩屈服极限越大,其所能承受内压的能力越差,b为双剪统一强度理论中的参数。这是有悖常理的。针对该现象本文考虑各主应力的正负取值情况,对库伦—莫尔理论和双剪统一强度理论的改进问题进行了探讨。并应用改进的双剪统一强度理论再次计算,得到了满意的结果。     

Statistical distribution and size effect of residual strength of quasibrittle materials after a period of constant load

In preceding studies, the type of cumulative probability distribution functions (cdf) of strength and of static lifetime of quasibrittle structures, including their tails, was mathematically derived from atomistic scale arguments based on nano-scale cracks propagating by many small, activation energy-controlled, random breaks of atomic bonds in the nanostructure. It was shown that a quasibrittle structure (of positive geometry) must be modeled by a finite (rather than infinite) weakest-link model, and that the cdf of structural strength as well as lifetime varies from nearly Gaussian to Weibullian as a function of structure size and shape. Excellent agreement with the observed distributions of structural strength and static lifetime was demonstrated. Based on the same theoretical framework, the present paper formulates the statistics of the residual structural strength, which is the strength after the structure has been subjected to sustained loading. A strength degradation equation is derived based on Evans' law for static crack growth during sustained loading. It is shown that the rate of strength degradation is not constant but continuously increasing. The cdf of residual strength of one RVE is shown to be closely approximated by a graft of Weibull and Gaussian (normal) distributions. In the left tail, the cdf is a three-parameter Weibull distribution consisting of the (n+1)th power of the residual strength, where n is the exponent of the Evans law and the threshold is a function of the applied load and load duration. The finiteness of the threshold, which is typically very small, is a new feature of quasibrittle residual strength statistics, contrasting with the previously established absence of a threshold for strength and lifetime. Its cause is that there is a non-zero probability that some specimens fail during the static preloading, and thus are excluded from the statistics of the overload. The predictions of the theory are validated by available test data on glass–epoxy composites and on borosilicate and soda-lime silicate glasses. The size effect on the cdf of residual strength is also determined. The size effect on the mean residual strength is found to be as strong as the size effect on the mean initial strength.     

Study of residual stresses in linearly varying biaxial-stress fields

A theory has been developed for the calculation of relaxation strains effected by drilling a hole in a plate with a linearly varying stress field. With this theory, a technique was developed for the measurement of residual stress at the toe of tee-fillet welds. The above technique was employed for the measurement of residual stresses at the toe of tee-fillet welds in 11/2-in. HY-80 steel with the fillet in the as-welded, ground, shot peened, ground and shot peened, and mechanically peened condition. It was found that experimental data conform to the assumed theory, and that residual stresses in aswelded tee-fillet welds in both the transverse and longitudinal directions approach the yield strength of the steel. It was also found that residual stresses are reduced approximately 25 percent by grinding, 50 percent by shot peening and 50 percent by grinding and shot peening. Mechanical peening drastically affected residual stresses by converting high tension at the toe of the fillet weld to high compression of approximately the same magnitude.     

Yield strength of machined ring-stiffened cylindrical shell under hydrostatic pressure

The effects of initial imperfections and residual welding and rolling stresses on the yield strength of a stiffened cylinder were investigated by tests of a machined and stress-relieved model, Model BR-7M, identical in geometry and of the same mateerial as a previously tested fabricated model, Model BR-7. The experimental collapse pressure of 1502 psi agreed well with collapse pressures computed from theories which account for the plastic reserve strength. The pressure at which yielding began agreed more closely with that calculated by the maximum-shear-stress or the Hencky-Von Mises criterion than with that calculated by the maximumprincipal-stress criterion. The data also indicated that the mathematical form of the deflection function of the shell did not change appreciably in the elastic-plastic range. Comparison of the collapse pressures of the machined and welded models indicated that, for the geometry tested, the residual welding and rolling stresses do not adversely affect the collapse pressure.