Predicting failure modes and ductility of dual phase steels using plastic strain localization

Ductile failure of metals is often treated as the result of void nucleation, growth and coalescence. Various criteria have been proposed to capture this failure mechanism for various materials. In this study, ductile failure of dual phase steels is predicted in the form of plastic strain localization resulting from the incompatible deformation between the harder martensite phase and the softer ferrite matrix. Microstructure-level inhomogeneity serves as the initial imperfection triggering the instability in the form of plastic strain localization during the deformation process. Failure modes and ultimate ductility of two dual phase steels are analyzed using finite element analyses based on the actual steel microstructures. The plastic work hardening properties for the constituent phases are determined by the in-situ synchrotron-based high-energy X-ray diffraction technique. Under different loading conditions, different failure modes and ultimate ductility are predicted in the form of plastic strain localization. It is found that the local failure mode and ultimate ductility of dual phase steels are closely related to the stress state in the material. Under plane stress condition with free lateral boundary, one dominant shear band develops and leads to final failure of the material. However, if the lateral boundary is constrained, splitting failure perpendicular to the loading direction is predicted with much reduced ductility. On the other hand, under plane strain loading condition, commonly observed necking phenomenon is predicted which leads to the final failure of the material. These predictions are in reasonably good agreement with experimental observations.     

Formability of TWIP (twinning induced plasticity) automotive sheets

The main objective of this work is to experimentally and numerically evaluate the macro-performance of the automotive TWIP (twinning induced plasticity) sheet in conjunction with formability. In order to characterize the mechanical properties, the simple tension and compression tests were performed for anisotropic properties, while the strain rate test was carried out to evaluate strain rate sensitivity. The forming limit diagram was measured and incorporated into the simulation program, while the theoretical prediction of the diffuse and localized necking was also carried out utilizing Hill’s and the M-K theories as well as Dorn’s and Swift’s diffuse theories. Note that the generalized criteria of Hill’s, Dorn’s and Swift’s theories were derived for general anisotropic sheets as well in this work. For numerical simulations, the anisotropic yield functions Yld2000-2d and Hill48 as well as the isotropic Mises yield function were selectively applied along with the isotropic hardening law. Formability verification was performed, utilizing Yld2000-2d, for the hemispherical dome stretching, notch and simple tension tests with specimens selectively prepared by milling and punching, while anisotropic properties were verified through the three point bending and cylindrical cup drawing tests, comparing the performance of the three yield functions.     

An experimental and numerical study on the formability of textured AlZnMg alloys

The influence of texture and grain structure on strain localisation and formability is investigated experimentally and numerically for two AlZnMg alloys. The considered alloys have recrystallised or non-recrystallised grain structure and strong or nearly random texture. The textured materials have rotated cube texture or β-fibre texture of high intensity. A comprehensive test programme, including uniaxial tension tests in three directions, through-thickness compression tests, plane-strain tension tests and double-plate formability tests, is completed to determine the work hardening, plastic anisotropy and formability of the materials. Strain localisation and failure are examined by optical microscopy. Using parts of the test data, an anisotropic plasticity model is calibrated and applied in calculation of forming limit curves, using the Marciniak–Kuczynski (M-K) analysis for anisotropic materials. The formability tests show that the materials with nearly random texture exhibit superior formability. This is mainly attributed to enhanced work hardening for these materials. For the material exhibiting strong β-fibre texture significantly lower formability is found in equibiaxial stretching than in plane strain, while this characteristic is not seen for the material with strong cube texture. The M-K analysis is capable of predicting the major trends of the experiments, and captures the low formability of the alloy with strong β-fibre texture under equibiaxial straining. A numerical study is performed to evaluate the sensitivity of the predicted forming limit curves to parameters not determined experimentally.     

Effect of phase-transformation on mechanical behavior of dual-phase steel plate

The mechanical behavior of dual phase steel plates is affected by internal stresses created during martensite transformation. Analytical modelling of this effect is made by considering a unit cell made of martensite inclusion in a ferrite matrix. A large strain finite element analysis is then performed to obtain the plane stress deformation state. Displayed numerically are the development of the plastic zone and distribution of local state of stress and strain. Studied also are the shape configuration of the martensite (hard-phase) that influences the interfacial condition as related to stress transmission and damage. Internal stresses are found to enhance the global flow stress after yield initiation in the ferrite matrix. Good agreement is obtained between the analytical results and experimental observations.     

A modified damage model for advanced high strength steel sheets

More often than not, better formability in the simple tension test implies better formability performance in other stretching modes, especially in hole expansion performance since deformation in the hole expansion test is perceived to be in the same simple tension deformation mode. However, when the hole expansion formability is evaluated particularly for the twinning induced plasticity (TWIP) steel, its performance is so poor compared to other automotive steels, even though the TWIP steel has significantly superior formability in the simple tension test. Therefore, hole expansion formability was experimentally and numerically studied for advanced high-strength grade steel sheets, TWIP940 and a transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) 590 steel sheet, as well as a high-strength grade 340R steel sheet, particularly in conjunction with formability in the simple tension test and its surface condition sensitivity. In order to characterize mechanical properties, simple tension tests were performed to determine anisotropic properties and strain rate sensitivities. To account for macro-crack formation, an inverse calibration method based on a damage model utilizing a triaxiality-dependent fracture criterion and hardening behavior with stiffness deterioration was developed. In this approach, the damage model was inversely calibrated by performing numerical simulations and experiments for the simple tension test (with specimens prepared by milling and punching). Then, the damage model was applied to formability study in the hole expansion test. The damage model along with the anisotropic yield function Hill (1948) incorporated into the ABAQUS/Explicit FEM code performed well to predict hole expansion ratios (HER) and their surface condition sensitivity, elucidating the cause of the lukewarm hole expansion performance and strong surface condition sensitivity of the TWIP steel compared to the others.     

Marciniak–Kuczynski type modelling of the effect of Through-Thickness Shear on the forming limits of sheet metal

The Marciniak–Kuczynski (MK) forming limit model is extended in order to predict localized necking in sheet metal forming operations in which Through-Thickness Shear (TTS), also known as out-of-plane shear, occurs. An example of such a forming operation is Single Point Incremental Forming. The Forming Limit Diagram (FLD) of a purely plastic, isotropic hardening material with von Mises yield locus is discussed, for monotonic deformation paths that include TTS. If TTS is present in the plane containing the critical groove direction in the MK model, it is seen that formability is increased for all in-plane strain modes, except equibiaxial stretching. The increase in formability due to TTS is explained through a detailed study of some selected deformation modes. The underlying mechanism is a change of the stress mode in the groove that results in a delay of the onset of localized necking.     

Analysis of sheet metal formability through isotropic and kinematic hardening models

The present paper aims at analysing the sheet metal formability through several isotropic and kinematic hardening models. Specifically, a special attention is paid to the physically-based hardening model of Teodosiu and Hu (1995), which accounts for the anisotropic work-hardening induced by the microstructural evolution at large strains, as well as to some more conventional hardening models, including the isotropic Swift strain-hardening power law, and the Voce saturation strain-hardening law, combined with a non-linear kinematic hardening described by the Armstrong–Frederick law. The onset of localized necking is simulated by an advanced sheet metal forming limit model which connects, through the Marciniak–Kuczinsky analysis, the hardening models with the anisotropic yield criterion Yld2000-2d (Barlat et al., 2003). Both linear and complex strain paths are taken into account. The selected material is a DC06 steel sheet. The validity of each model is assessed by comparing the predicted forming limits with experimental results carefully obtained on this steel. The origin of discrepancy in the predicted results using different hardening models is thoroughly analyzed.     

DP钢板应变路径多步演变下的弹塑性力学行为

针对DP高强双相钢板在复杂载荷作用下的弹塑性力学特征,提出利用三步拉伸力学实验,对比分析单轴循环加载和非等轴加载下材料的各向异性硬化、永久软化和弹性模量衰减特性等力学行为,揭示应变路径多步演变下的弹塑性力学特性.研究结果表明:材料再加载初期的瞬态行为与应变路径有关,在初期瞬态阶段显示出明显的各向异性,且再加载角度、预应...     

Crystal plasticity-based forming limit prediction for non-cubic metals: Application to Mg alloy AZ31B

A viscoplastic crystal plasticity model is incorporated within the Marciniak–Kuczynski (M–K) approach for forming limit curve prediction. The approach allows for the incorporation of crystallographic texture-induced anisotropy and the evolution of the same. The effects of mechanical twinning on the plastic response and texture evolution are also incorporated. Grain-level constitutive parameters describing the temperature dependent behavior of hexagonal close packed Mg alloy, AZ31B, sheets at discrete temperatures are used as a first application of the model. A trade-off between significant strain hardening behavior at lower temperatures (∼150 °C), and significant strain rate hardening at higher temperatures (∼200 °C) lead to similarities in the predicted forming limits. The actual formability of this alloy depends strongly on temperature within this range, and this distinction with the current modeling is related to more localized instability-based failure mechanisms at the lower temperatures than is assumed in the M–K approach. It is shown that the strain path dependence in the strain hardening response is significant and that it influences the forming limits in a predictable way. For broader applicability, a means of incorporating dynamic recrystallization into the crystal plasticity model is required.     

Plastic deformation modelling of tempered martensite steel block structure by a nonlocal crystal plasticity model

The plastic deformations of tempered martensite steel representative volume elements with different martensite block structures have been investigated by using a nonlocal crystal plasticity model which considers isotropic and kinematic hardening produced by plastic strain gradients. It was found that pronounced strain gradients occur in the grain boundary region even under homogeneous loading. The isotropic hardening of strain gradients strongly influences the global stress–strain diagram while the kinematic hardening of strain gradients influences the local deformation behaviour. It is found that the additional strain gradient hardening is not only dependent on the block width but also on the misorientations or the deformation incompatibilities in adjacent blocks.     

The shear fracture of dual-phase steel

Unexpected fractures at high-curvature die radii in sheet forming operations limit the adoption of advanced high strength steels (AHSS) that otherwise offer remarkable combinations of high strength and tensile ductility. Identified as “shear fractures” or “shear failures,” these often show little sign of through-thickness localization and are not predicted by standard industrial simulations and forming limit diagrams. To understand the origins of shear failure and improve its prediction, a new displacement-controlled draw-bending test was developed, carried out, and simulated using a coupled thermo-mechanical finite element model. The model incorporates 3D solid elements and a novel constitutive law taking into account the effects of strain, strain rate, and temperature on flow stress. The simulation results were compared with companion draw-bend tests for three grades of dual-phase (DP) steel over a range of process conditions. Shear failures were accurately predicted without resorting to damage mechanics, but less satisfactorily for DP 980 steel. Deformation-induced heating has a dominant effect on the occurrence of shear failure in these alloys because of the large energy dissipated and the sensitivity of strain hardening to temperature increases of the order of 75 °C. Isothermal simulations greatly overestimated the formability and the critical bending ratio for shear failures, thus accounting for the dominant effect leading to the inability of current industrial methods to predict forming performance accurately. Use of shell elements (similar to industrial practice) contributes to the prediction error, and fracture (as opposed to strain localization) contributes for higher-strength alloys, particularly for transverse direction tests. The results illustrate the pitfall of using low-rate, isothermal, small-curvature forming limit measurements and simulations to predict the failure of high-rate, quasi-adiabatic, large-curvature industrial forming operations of AHSS.     

Damage percolation during stretch flange forming of aluminum alloy sheet

A multi-scale finite element (FE)-damage percolation model was employed to simulate stretch flange forming of aluminum alloys AA5182 and AA5754. Material softening and strain gradients were captured using a Gurson-based FE model. FE results were then fed into the so-called damage percolation code, from which the damage development was modelled within measured microstructures. The formability of the stretch flange samples was predicted based upon the onset of catastrophic failure triggered by profuse void coalescence within the measured second-phase particle field. Damage development is quantified in terms of crack and void areal fractions, and compared to metallographic results obtained from interrupted stretch flange specimens. Parametric study is conducted on the effect of void nucleation strain in the prediction of formability of stretch flanges to “calibrate” proper nucleation strains for both alloys.     

Investigation of Strain Heterogeneities Between Grains in Ferritic and Ferritic-Martensitic Steels

This work uses microlithography, digital image correlation and tensile test in order to investigate the reasons behind the heterogeneous strain distribution at the grain scale. Scanning Electron Microscope images are taken to examine the relationship between microstructure features and strain heterogeneity. The study is carried out on single phase ferritic steel and two dual phase steels with ferrite and different hard particle martensite contents. Useful image correlation is obtained in grains with diameters of 2–3 μm for the martensite and ranging from 10 to 20 μm for the ferrite. To prevent a decrease of image correlation success, some technical aspects as the microgrid step and bar width are extensively tackled with for intermediate deformations (>10 %). The different levels of longitudinal intragranular strains observed inside the ferrite grains are not correlated with their orientation, shape, size or the presence (and content) of hard phase in the material.     

Functionally graded structural members obtained via the low temperature strain induced phase transformation

The notion of functionally graded materials (FGM) covers all domains of discrete and smooth gradation of material microstructure designed in order to obtain macroscopic features suitable for a given application. A special class of multi-phase materials with graded microstructure can be obtained at cryogenic temperatures as a result of smooth transition from the parent phase to the secondary phase. The required continuously graded material features are obtained at low temperatures via the mechanism of controlled strain induced phase transformation from the purely austenitic to the martensitic lattice (γ → α′). Several families of ductile materials are known to behave in a metastable way when strained at very low temperatures. Among them the austenitic stainless steels are extensively used to construct components of the superconducting magnets, cryogenic transfer lines and other structural members loaded in cryogenic conditions. The constitutive model used to describe mathematically the plastic strain induced phase transformation at low temperatures involves strain hardening where two fundamental effects play an important role: interaction of dislocations with the martensite inclusions and increase in material tangent stiffness due to the mixture of harder martensite with softer austenite. The interaction of dislocations with the martensite inclusions is reflected by the hardening modulus that depends on the volume fraction of martensite. Here, a linear approximation, based on the micro-mechanics analysis, is used. On the other hand, evaluation of the material tangent stiffness of two-phase continuum is based on the classical homogenization scheme and takes into account the local tangent moduli of the components, as postulated by Hill [Hill, R., 1965. A self consistent mechanics of composite materials. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 13, 213–222]. In the present paper, the Mori–Tanaka homogenisation scheme is applied. Both effects contribute to strong nonlinear hardening that occurs as soon as the phase transformation process begins. The material model is suitable for a wide range of temperatures, however the best results are obtained at very low temperatures, where the linearized kinetic law of phase transformation is valid [Garion, C., Skoczeń B., 2002. Modeling of plastic strain induced martensitic transformation for cryogenic applications. J. Appl. Mech. 69 (6), 755–762]. As the application field the structural members in the form of rods (cylinders) of circular cross-section, used as parts of the carrying structures, are analyzed. The required graded microstructure of the material is obtained by imposing torsion at cryogenic temperatures. Both the intensity of the phase transformation and the depth of the transformed zone is obtained by suitable kinematic control (angle of twist). The closed form solutions for the stress state and torque as a function of the angle of twist are shown.     

异种不锈钢激光焊缝材料的动态本构关系

利用等应变测试法获取了304及316L激光焊接焊缝材料的准静态应力应变曲线,发现焊缝材料 具有明显的细晶硬脆化趋势。利用SHTB技术对304、316L及焊接构件材料高温动态力学性能进行了研究。 根据动态实验数据对不锈钢304及316L母材应变率及温度相关的Johnson-Cook本构方程参数进行了拟合。 利用LS-DYNA建立了SHTB动态拉伸实验数值模型,发现了在应力波加载初始阶段由于结构效应及材料 阻抗不匹配引起的应力不平衡现象。通过动态实验与数值模拟相结合的方法确定了焊缝材料的应变率相关 本构参数。     

合金含量对高速车轮材料滚动接触磨损性能的影响

将2种含碳量相同合金含量不同的高速车轮材料分别与钢轨材料匹配,利用滚动接触摩擦磨损试验机测试了各摩擦副的摩擦系数和磨损率,比较研究了组织、硬度和加工硬化等因素对车轮材料滚动接触磨损性能的影响.结果表明：在传统的高速车轮材料中适当地增加Si、Mn的含量,降低Cr的含量可以提高车轮材料的抗磨损性能;硬度高的车轮材料未必耐磨,组织差异对车轮材料的抗磨损性能影响显著;表面裂纹易萌生于高度变形的先共析铁素体组织;加工硬化引起的硬度增加对材料的抗磨损性能影响不大.     

铁路货车心盘材料的耐磨性研究

对比研究了货车心盘用ZG25MnNb钢、AAR-C级钢及经过表面强化处理的锻钢20Mn、锻钢Q345和铸钢ZG25的耐磨性能；采用金相显微镜分析了材料金相结构对其耐磨性能的影响。结果表明，对货车心盘用钢材进行表面强化能够显著改善其耐磨性能ZG25MnNb钢和经表面强化处理的锻钢20Mn的耐磨性较优；表面硬度高而组织细小的材料组成的摩擦副的耐磨性较好。     

Macro-performance evaluation of friction stir welded automotive tailor-welded blank sheets: Part I – Material properties

In order to evaluate the macroscopic performance of friction stir welded automotive tailor-welded blank (TWB) sheets, the hardening behavior, anisotropic yielding properties and forming limit diagram were characterized both for base (material) and weld zones. In order to describe the Bauschinger and transient hardening behaviors as well as permanent softening during reverse loading, the modified Chaboche type combined isotropic–kinematic hardening law was applied. As for anisotropic yielding, the non-quadratic anisotropic yield function, Yld2000-2d, was utilized for base material zones, while isotropy was assumed for weld zones for simplicity. As for weld zones, hardening properties were obtained using the rule of mixture and selectively by direct measurement using sub-sized specimens. Forming limit diagrams were measured for base materials but calculated for weld zones based on Hill’s bifurcation and M–K theories. In this work, four automotive sheets were considered: aluminum alloy 6111-T4, 5083-H18, 5083-O and dual-phase steel DP590 sheets, each having one or two thicknesses. Base sheets with the same and different thicknesses were friction-stir welded for tailor-welded blank (TWB) samples.     

S30408低温棘轮效应本构描述

S30408奥氏体不锈钢因其优异的力学性能和耐低温性能而被广泛用于制作LNG等低温罐车罐体的内容器。此类罐体的内容器在其支撑部位不但承受内压引起的恒定应力还会承受惯性载荷引起的交变应力,容易发生渐进的塑性应变累积即棘轮效应。但目前还缺乏有效预测S30408低温棘轮效应的本构描述。利用几种较为先进的本构模型对低温S30408奥氏体不锈钢棘轮应变进行模拟,发现这些本构模型存在循环初期过低预测和循环后期过高预测的缺点,并且这种过高预测会随着循环圈数的增加而增大。基于Ohno - Wang II模型,关联形变马氏体含量与各向同性强化与随动强化,并给出马氏体极限含量dL的演化规律,进而提出一种含马氏体相变的循环塑性本构模型。与其它模型相比,该模型能有效改善在循环初期预测值过低和后期预测值过高的情况,同时能够较好地预测循环加载过程中形变马氏体的含量。