Pyramidal Carbocations

Pyramidal cations are discussed with reference to their role as the connecting link between organic and inorganic chemistry. The electronic structure of these ions is treated with respect to their physical and chemical properties, namely charge distribution, geometry, and quenching reactions with nucleophiles. The chemistry in the gas phase of certain carbenium ions, in particular the scrambling of carbon atoms, is readily explicable by invoking transition states or intermediates of pyramidal structure. Moreover, the behavior of unimolecular processes can be understood in terms of transition states in which a hydrogen molecule is positioned as a “side-on” or an “end-on” ligand.     

Carbocations and Electrophilic Reactions

The general concept of carbocations encompasses all cations of carbon containing compounds which can be differentiated into two distinct classes: trivalent (“classical”) carbenium ions and pentacoordinated (“nonclassical”) carbonium ions. In this paper the preparation and structural study (by NMR, IR, Raman and ESCA spectroscopy) of stable carbenium ions and carbonium ions are discussed. As is well known, trivalent carbenium ions play an important role in electrophilic reactions of π- and n-donor systems. Similarly, pentacoordinated carbonium ions are the key to electrophilic reactions of σ-donor systems (single bonds). The ability of single bonds to act as σ-donor lies in their ability to form carbonium ions via triangular two electron, three-center bond formation. Consequently there seems to be no principle difference between the electrophilic reactions of π- and σ-bonds except that the former react more easily, even with weak electrophiles, whereas the latter necessitate more severe conditions. The role of carbocations in electrophilic reactions of π- and σ-donor systems is discussed.     

浅析大学化学教学中常见碳正离子的稳定性

碳正离子的稳定性是大学有机化学教学中的一个重点。针对当前不同教材和教学资料排序不一致的情况,本文在综合分析文献的基础上,通过定性和定量数据两方面分析,结合实际反应结果,尝试给出了各种常见碳正离子较为合理的稳定性顺序和相应解释。     

Viability of Nonclassical Carbocations Proposed as Intermediates in the Biosynthesis of Atiserene,Beyerene, Kaurene,and Trachylobane Diterpenes

The results of quantum‐chemical calculations aimed at assessing the viability of nonclassical carbocations proposed to be involved in the biosynthesis of atiserne, beyerene, kaurene, and trachylobane diterpenes are presented. While the proposed edge‐protonated structure is much lower in energy than the proposed face‐protonated structure, neither is predicted to be a viable intermediate energetically.     

Stable Carbodications

Methods developed for the generation and study of stable carbomonocations can also be employed for similar investigations on carbodications. Trivalent (classical) as well as hexacoordinate (non-classical) carbodications studied under long-lived ion conditions are reviewed with special emphasis on their structural features, and investigated primarily by ¹H- and ¹³C-NMR spectroscopy.     

Degenerate Carbonium Ions

Carbonium ions are called “degenerate” when they rearrange through finite energy barriers to give products whose gross structures are identical with those of the starting ions. In such degenerate rearrangements (“automerizations”), individual atoms and groups become mixed but the overall structure is conserved. Automerizations can be observed by noting the dispersal of isotopic labels, the loss of optical activity, or the temperature dependence of NMR spectra. In certain cases, a combination of well-known rearrangement processes results in complete mixing of all atoms, C or H. The 2-norbornyl and 9-barbaralyl cations are examples of fully degenerate systems; conditions can be found where both give but single-line NMR spectra.     

Mechanistic and Preparative Aspects of Vinyl Cation Chemistry

Compelling evidence for the intermediacy of vinyl cations has accumulated in recent years. Vinyl cations can be generated by electrophilic additions to alkynes and allenes, and on participation of such functions in solvolysis reactions. Heterolysis of vinyl compounds likewise affords vinyl cations. Syntheses of substituted indenes, cyclobutanones, and cyclopropyl ketones illustrate preparative applications.     

Reactivities of Carbocations and Carbanions

Initiation and propagation rate constants of carbocationic and carbanionic polymerizations can be predicted by the correlation equation log k_{20 °C} = s(N + E), where E characterizes the electrophilicity of carbocations and electron-deficient alkenes, and N characterizes the nucleophilicity of carbanions and electron-rich alkenes. Since the nucleophile-specific slope parameter s is generally close to 1, it can be neglected in a first approximation, and the two-dimensional representation in Figure 3 illustrates the gradual change from carbanionic to carbocationic polymerizations with Hall's “initiation by bond-formation” as the link connecting the two ranges. The value of model studies for understanding ionic polymerizations is illustrated.     

Carbocations Confined in a Thiatriazuliporphyrin Frame

In the search for tricarbaporphyrinoids, a three‐component acid‐catalyzed condensation of azulene, 2,5‐bis[(p‐tolyl)hydroxymethyl]thiophene, and an aryl aldehyde has been elaborated, affording the appropriate thiatriazuliporphyrinogens. The subsequent oxidation yielded a rare example of a macrocyclic organic tetracation, which can be readily and reversibly converted into macrocyclic tri‐ and dicarbocations by addition of one or two hydroxides bound at the meso position(s). Further insight into the influence of carbocation formation on the geometry, electronic structure, and magnetic manifestation in ¹H NMR spectroscopy has been obtained by using density functional theory calculations. The charge distribution was evaluated by mapping electron density surfaces with electrostatic potential (ESP).     

非经典碳正离子简介

非经典碳正离子作为一种特殊的反应中间体,具有重要的理论和实际研究的意义。本文以碳正离子理论的发展为主线,以历史上非经典碳正离子(特别是降冰片基正离子)之争为中心,简要综述了Winstein、Brown和Olah三人的观点,并结合最新进展进行评述。此外,还对除降冰片基正离子之外的非经典碳正离子进行了适当的讨论。     

Conjugative Stabilization versus Anchimeric Assistance in Carbocations

In this study, an old concept of anchimeric assistance is viewed from a different angle. Primary cations with two different heteroatomic substituents in the α-position to the cationic carbon atom CHXY–CH₂⁺ (X, Y = Me₂N, MeO, Me₃Si, Me₂P, MeS, MeS, Br) can be stabilized by the migration of either the X or Y group to the cation center. In each case, the migration can be either complete, resulting in the transfer of the migrating group to the adjacent carbon atom and the formation of a secondary carbocation stabilized by the remaining heteroatom, or incomplete, leading to an anchimerically assisted iranium ion. For all combinations of the above groups, these transformations have been studied by theoretical analysis at the MP2/aug-cc-pVTZ level and were shown to occur depending on the ability of anchimeric assistance by X and Y, as well as the conformation of the starting primary carbocation. In the conformers of α-amino cations with the p-orbital, C–N bond and the nitrogen lone pair in one plane, the Me₂N group migrates to the cationic center to give aziranium ions. Otherwise, the second heteroatom is shifted to give iminium ions, without or with very slight anchimeric assistance. In the α-methoxy cations, the MeO group can be shifted to the cationic center to give the O-anchimerically assisted ions as local minima, the global minima being the ions anchimerically assisted by another heteroatom. The electropositive silicon tends to migrate towards the cationic center, but with the formation of a π-complex of the Me₃Si cation with the C=C bond rather than a Si-anchimerically assisted cation. The phosphorus atom can either fully migrate to the cationic center (X = P, Y = S, Se) or form anchimerically stabilized phosphiranium ions (X = P, Y = O, Si, Br). The order of the anchimeric assistance for the heaviest atoms decreases in the order Se >> S > Br.     

Pd(II)-Catalyzed cyclogeneration of carbocations: subsequent rearrangement and trapping under oxidative conditions

A catalytic oxidative polycyclization reaction initiated by the carbocyclization of 1,5-dienes with Pd(II) is reported. Trapping of a putative carbocation with suitable functional groups (phenols, alkenes, alcohols, sulfonamide), or rearrangement protocols (Pinacol) yields poly-cyclic products in good yields and in excellent diastereoselectivities. Turnover of the intermediate Pd-C bond is via β-H elimination.     

Synthesis of 1-aryl-tetralins and 4-aryl-benzopyrans by sulfoxide-mediated benzylic carbocation cyclizations

An alkylation/cyclization sequence, with both steps mediated by the ortho-N-methylformamido-phenylsulfinyl function, provided two new C-C bonds and an efficient entry to 1-aryl-tetralins and 4-aryl-benzopyrans. Scope and limits of the process have been studied in detail.     

Functionalized Corannulene Carbocations: A Structural Overview

A detailed structural overview of a family of bowl‐shaped polycyclic aromatic carbocations of the type [C₂₀H₁₀R]⁺ with different R functionalities tethered to the interior surface of corannulene (C₂₀H₁₀) is provided. Changing the identity of the surface‐bound groups through alkyl chains spanning from one to four carbon atoms and incorporating a different degree of halogenation has led to the fine tuning of the bowl structures and properties. The deformation of the corannulene core upon functionalization has been revealed based on X‐ray crystallographic analysis and compared for the series of cations with R=CH₃, CH₂Cl, CHCl₂, CCl₃, CH₂CH₃, CH₂CH₂Cl, and CH₂CH₂Br. The resulting carbocations have been isolated with several metal‐based counterions, varying in size and coordinating abilities ([AlCl₄]^?, [AlBr₄]^?, [(SnCl)(GaCl₄)₂]^?, and [Al(OC(CF₃)₃)₄]^?). A variety of aggregation patterns in the solid state has been revealed based on different intermolecular interactions ranging from cation–anion to π–π stacking and to halogen???π interactions. For the [C₂₀H₁₀CH₂Cl]⁺ ion crystallized with several different counterions, the conformation of the R group attached to the central five‐membered ring of corannulene moiety was found to depend on the solid‐state environment defined by the identity of anions. Solution NMR and UV/Vis investigations have been used to complement the X‐ray diffraction studies for this series of corannulene‐based cations and to demonstrate their different association patterns with the solvent molecules.     

How stable actually is the planar ‘triangular’ benzene dication?

Quantum chemical calculations indicate that the kinetic stability of an earlier proposed elegant planar ‘triangular’ benzene dication 1a is very low. The kinetic stability of its methylated derivative 2a is even lower.     

Reactions of Bunte salts with carbocations of isobenzofuranone and isoindolone

A convenient method for the preparation of functionalized derivatives of isobenzofuran-1(3H)-ones and isoindol-1(3H)-ones by reactions of their carbocations with Bunte salts is described. The reactions proceed by means of electrophilic attack on the S(II)-atom of the Bunte salts.     

Scales of Nucleophilicity and Electrophilicity: A System for Ordering Polar Organic and Organometallic Reactions

Contrary to widely held opinion, for many reactions in organic and organometallic chemistry it is possible to define nucleophilicity and electrophilicity parameters that are independent of the reaction partners. This phenomenon, discovered by Ritchie during the early 1970s for reactions of highly stabilized carbenium and diazonium ions with n-nucleophiles, also occurs with reactions of carbenium ions with aliphatic and aromatic π-electron systems and in hydride transfer reactions. With the aid of the scales of nucleophilicity and electrophilicity set out here, which extend over eighteen orders of magnitude, forecasts can be made about the feasibility and rate of a given CC bond formation, ionic reduction, or diazo coupling. Linkage with the reactivity scales of Ritchie and Sweigart/Kane-Maguire enables a unified treatment of a large number of polar reactions.