金在铱内敏的直接正像乳剂中的作用

制备依内敏的AgBr立方体乳剂,乳剂被二氧化硫脲和三氯化金灰化。实验表明:有金存在时灰化乳剂,灰化中心优先在颗粒表面形成;金不存在时,则灰化中心优先在颗粒内部形成。用Na₁S₂O₃溶液刻蚀乳剂,得到了灰化中心在乳剂颗粒体相中的分布曲线。当二氧化硫脲量小,加金灰化时,灰化中心分布在颗粒表面和次表面;当二氧化硫脲量大,加金灰化时,灰化中心分布在颗粒体相中,但由表到里,灰化中心越来越少;当二氧化硫脲量大,不加金灰化时,灰化中心主要分布在颗粒中层部分。对加金灰化的乳剂来说,由于颗粒内部没有灰化中心竞争光生空穴,有大量的光生空穴破坏颗粒表面的灰化中心,因而可以获得高感直接正像乳剂。     

曝光强度对卤化银微晶中载流子行为及其陷阱效应的影响

针对卤化银感光材料潜影形成过程中光作用动力学问题,分析了曝光强度对光生载流子行为和电子陷阱效应的影响,认为伴随着曝光强度的增加,影响光电子衰减的因素由电子陷阱起主要作用演化到电子陷阱和复合中心共同起作用进而演化到复合中心起主要作用.     

直流极化法对溴化银T颗粒乳剂电性能的研究

采用Wagner直流极化法对溴化银T颗粒乳剂的电性能作了研究.研究结果表明,未经光照的溴化银T颗粒乳剂具有一定的电子电导率.与曝光后的溴化银T颗粒乳剂相比,未经光照的溴化银T颗粒乳剂具有更高的电子电导率.另外,在未经光照的卤化银乳剂微晶体中,如果添加防灰雾剂,其电子电导率会明显上升.感光乳剂电性能的变化反映出溴化银乳剂微晶体内自由电子与填隙银离子结合的状态.本文还从分子结构的角度探讨了四氮唑等防灰雾剂对溴化银乳剂微晶体自由电子与填隙银离子结合的阻滞作用.     

关于内灰化卤化银乳剂提高感光材料遮盖率的研究

多年来提高卤化银照相乳剂遮盖率的研究,特别是高速负性乳剂,例如医用X射线乳剂已引起广泛注意。乳剂制造者们不断寻求提高卤化银照相乳剂的遮盖率,即尽可能产生较高的密度,以最充分地利用银,或在不降低卤化银乳剂性能的条件下,减少胶片中的银含量,以达到节银的目的。将一定量的内灰化卤化银乳剂与碘的摩尔分数大于3%的高感大颗粒乳剂混合,以提高感光材料的遮盖率是一种很有效的方法。本文主要研究了内灰化乳剂的制备,选用了有效的内灰化卤化银乳剂及灰化剂,以提高负性感光材料的遮盖率。试验表明,内灰化乳剂与常规的澳碘化银乳剂混合涂成胶片,是达到提高胶片遮盖率的有效方法。胶片在显影时内灰化颗粒(曝了光的)充分被还原,可产生较高的密度即较高的遮盖率。在显影液中是否含有碘化钾以及对内灰化乳剂制备的影响是本文研究的重点^[1,2]。     

铱盐在AgBr乳剂中的作用

用(NH₄)₃IrCl₆(Ⅲ)和(NH₄)IrCl₆(Ⅳ)分别对立方体AgBr乳剂颗粒表面和内部进行敏化,用表面显影和内部显影的方法,对铱盐在乳剂颗粒中的作用进行了研究。实验表明,经铱表敏的AgBr乳剂表面感光度增加,而铱内敏的AgBr乳剂表面感光度降低,内部感光度增加;铱内敏并经灰化的乳剂在曝光后能形成直接正像。这是因为经化学灰化的铱内敏乳剂在曝光后,光生电子被乳剂颗粒内部的铱中心捕获而形成内潜影,光空穴则破坏颗粒表面的灰化中心,使其不能显影。因此,我们认为铱在乳剂颗粒内部起着电子陷阱的作用。     

银二聚体型空穴-电子转换器的增感技术研究

长期以来,在对潜影的研究中发现,卤化银微晶曝光时产生的正空穴与潜影形成效率不高、潜影衰退、负感效应和互易律失效等现象均有关.正因为这些原因,所以一直以来卤化银成像体系所要解决的最基本问题之一仍是如何减少和消除正空穴对潜影形成的不良影响来克服潜影形成效率低的问题.近年来,人们在如何处理空穴问题上逐渐形成了一条新思路,其基本思想是:光生空穴 输入 化学空穴—电子转换器 输出 电子或电子载体其中的“空穴—电子转换器”应具备两个基本功能,一个是空穴捕获功能;另一个是空穴转换功能,即能把捕获的空穴经过快速反应转换成自由电子,并能释放出来参与潜影的形成.     

显影灰雾形成机理的研究 Ⅰ.显影灰雾形成过程的受阻显影研究

本文利用受阻显影和电镜方法,对比了显影灰雾与乳剂灰雾的形成过程.研究表明,乳剂灰雾是由于在乳剂制备过程中形成的灰雾中心而引起的,这种灰雾中心在显影过程中的行为与潜影中心一样,显影在少数中心开始,最后生成丝团状银.显影灰雾的形成则经过成核和生长两个不同的阶段:藉显影物分子与乳剂颗粒表面的碰撞而生成银核,一旦稳定的银核生成,随后就能以较快的速率继续生长.因此在一般显影的条件下,显影灰雾的形成需要一个较长的显影引发期.成核在颗粒表面的许多部位发生,同时生长,最后生成紧密的银块.溴化钾和季铵盐对成核速率有显著影响,这表明了乳剂颗粒表面负电荷在显影成核阶段中的作用.未敏化乳剂的显影灰雾中心在颗粒表面上的分布是随机的,而硫敏化乳剂的显影灰雾中心则优先在八面体的棱上生成.     

菁染料与溴化银相互作用性质的研究

本文用计时电位法及电位滴定研究了十六种不同染料与溴化银之间的相互作用,进一步证明了具有离域π-电子的菁染料才能与卤化银形成络合物的论点。从得到的平衡常数K表明,固体表面上的卤化银-染料与溶液中银离子-染料具有相同键性质,都是银离子与染料离域π-电子作用的结果。     

碘和硫增感剂在卤化银颗粒表面的分布

碘在卤化银微晶中的含量和分布对感光度的影响引起乳剂配方设计者的广泛注意和重视.颗粒中的碘引起其内部结构和表面结构的改变,导致微晶颗粒表面化学及物理性质的改变,从而引起增感敏化斑的位置、分布以及随后潜影斑、灰雾斑的形成等一系列的变化并最终影响乳剂的感光性能.如果我们想有效地控制卤化银乳剂的感光度、灰雾、反差等一系列感光性能,必须调整卤化银乳剂颗粒的表面结构.     

半导体纳米粒子在反胶束中的合成及其与芘分子间的跨相电子转移

本文在AOT/异辛烷反胶束中合成了CdS和ZnS半导体纳米粒子。粒子的荧光量子产率随胶束水含量的增大而减小。这可以归结为水含量增大导致胶粒表面Cd²⁺或Zn²⁺离子浓度降低,因为这两种离子在胶粒表面富集有利于形成硫空位,从而增大光生电子-空穴对的发光复合。研究发现,Ag⁺离子可以有效猝灭CdS和ZnS纳米粒子的荧光发射,该猝灭过程可以用Ag⁺离子在胶束中的Poisson分布来描述。以溶解在有机相中的pyrene作电子给体,在光激发下可以向CdS粒子注入电子,而和ZnS粒子间没有电荷转移发生,这可以解释为两种半导体的导带边相对于pyrene激发态氧化电位所处的位置不同。Cu²⁺或Ag⁺离子在ZnS颗粒表面吸附,可以形成Cu_xZn_1-xS或Ag_2xZn_1-xS复合粒子,降低ZnS粒子的导带位置,从而使之能够接受来自pyrene激发态的电子。实验结果证实了这种论点。     

ELECTROCHEMISTRY OF EXCITED MOLECULES: PHOTO-ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTIONS OF CHLOROPHYLLS*

Abstract— Semiconductors with a sufficiently large energy gap, in contact with an electrolyte, can be used as electrodes for the study of electrochemical reactions of excited molecules. The behavior of excited chlorophyll molecules at single crystal ZnO-electrodes has been investigated. These molecules inject electrons from excited levels into the conduction band of the electrode, thus giving rise to an anodic photocurrent. The influence of various agents on this electron transfer has been studied. In the presence of suitable electron donors (e.g., hydroquinone, phenylhydrazine) in the electrolyte chlorophyll molecules, absorbing quanta, mediate the pumping of electrons from levels of the reducing agents into the conduction band of the semiconductor-electron acceptor. The electron capture by the semiconductor electrode is irreversible, when an adequate electrochemical gradient is provided in the electrode surface. Some properties of excited chlorophyll at semiconductor electrodes (unidirectional electron transfer, highly efficient charge separation, chlorophyll as electron pump and able to convert electronic excitation into electric energy) show similarity to the behavior of chlorophyll in photosynthetic reaction centers.     

电镜法对硫敏化中心的直接观察

敏化中心的形成是Ag₂S的聚集过程, 一般包括两步^[1]. 在第一步中, 增感剂中的硫离子与银离子在AgX晶体表面生成Ag₂S分子, 然后, 多个Ag₂S分子接合(coalescence)形成敏化中心.     

Sensory properties of oxide films with high concentrations of conduction electrons

The dependence of a sensor’s response to hydrogen on the temperature and hydrogen pressure in an indium oxide nanostructured film is measured. A theory of sensor’s response to reducing gases in nanostructured semiconducting oxides with high concentrations of electrons in the conduction band is developed (using the example of In₂O₃). It is shown that the capture of conduction electrons by adsorbed oxygen redistributes the electrons in nanoparticles and reduces the surface electron density and the conductivity of a system; the conductivity is proportional to the electron density in nanoparticle contacts, i.e., to the surface electron density. It is found that atomic oxygen ions react with reducing gases (H₂, CO) during adsorption of the latter: electrons are released and enter the volumes of nanoparticles; the conductivity of the system grows, creating the sensory effect. Using a model developed earlier to describe the distribution of conduction electrons in a semiconductor nanoparticle, a kinetic scheme corresponding to the above scenario is built and corresponding equations are solved. As a result, a theoretical dependence of a sensor’s sensitivity to temperature is found that describes the experimental data well.

     

Origin of photoactivity of nitrogen-doped titanium dioxide under visible light

Nitrogen-doped titanium dioxide (N-TiO2), a photocatalytic material active in visible light, has been investigated by a combined experimental and theoretical approach. The material contains single-atom nitrogen impurities that form either diamagnetic (Nb-) or paramagnetic (Nb*) bulk centers. Both types of Nb centers give rise to localized states in the band gap of the oxide. The relative abundance of these species depends on the oxidation state of the solid, as, upon reduction, electron transfer from Ti3+ ions to Nb* results in the formation of Ti4+ and Nb-. EPR spectra measured under irradiation show that Nb centers are responsible for visible light absorption with promotion of electrons from the band gap localized states to the conduction band or to surface-adsorbed electron scavengers. These results provide a characterization of the electronic states associated with N impurities in TiO2 and, for the first time, a picture of the processes occurring in the solid under irradiation with visible light.     

Organic Electron Donors as Powerful Single‐Electron Reducing Agents in Organic Synthesis

One‐electron reduction is commonly used in organic chemistry for the formation of radicals by the stepwise transfer of one or two electrons from a donor to an organic substrate. Besides metallic reagents, single‐electron reducers based on neutral organic molecules have emerged as an attractive novel source of reducing electrons. The past 20 years have seen the blossoming of a particular class of organic reducing agents, the electron‐rich olefins, and their application in organic synthesis. This Review gives an overview of the different types of organic donors and their specific characteristics in organic transformations.     

Fabrication of Z-Scheme WO3/KNbO3 Photocatalyst with Enhanced Separation of Charge Carriers

Z-Scheme photocatalysts as a research focus perform strong redox capability and high photocatalytic performance. WO₃/KNbO₃ photocatalysts were fabricated by ball milling method, and performed higher photocatalytic activity in liquid degradation(rhodamine B, methylene blue and bisphenol A), compared with WO₃ or KNbO₃ monomer. This is due to that Z-scheme heterojunction is formed between WO₃ and KNbO₃, and the holes photo-excited in valence band of KNbO₃ are quickly combined with the electrons in conduction band of WO₃. The electrons accumulated in conduction band of KNbO₃ show high reducibility, thereby reducing O₂ to ^·O₂^-, and the holes in valence band of WO₃ show high oxidative to oxidize H₂O to ^·OH, respectively. Furthermore, it is proved by means of electron spin resonance(ESR) spectra, terephthalic acid photoluminescence probing technique(TA-PL), and UV-Vis absorption spectra of nitroblue tetrazolium. This work indicates that the fabrication of Z-scheme structure can improve the photocatalytic activity by efficiently separating the photogenerated electrons and holes in the photocatalytic reaction system, which is helpful to deeply understand the migration mechanism of photoexcited carrier(band-band transfer and Z-scheme transfer) in heterojunction photocatalysts.     

Light-induced charge separation in anatase TiO2 particles

Ultraviolet light-induced electron-hole pair excitations in anatase TiO(2) powders were studied by a combination of electron paramagnetic resonance and infrared spectroscopy measurements. During continuous UV irradiation in the mW.cm(-2) range, photogenerated electrons are either trapped at localized sites, giving paramagnetic Ti(3+) centers, or remain in the conduction band as EPR silent species which may be observed by their IR absorption. Using low temperatures (90 K) to reduce the rate of the electron-hole recombination processes, trapped electrons and conduction band electrons exhibit lifetimes of hours. The EPR-detected holes produced by photoexcitation are O(-) species, produced from lattice O(2-) ions. It is found that under high vacuum conditions, the major fraction of photoexcited electrons remains in the conduction band. At 298 K, all stable hole and electron states are lost from TiO(2). Defect sites produced by oxygen removal during annealing of anatase TiO(2) are found to produce a Ti(3+) EPR spectrum identical to that of trapped electrons, which originate from photoexcitation of oxidized TiO(2). Efficient electron scavenging by adsorbed O(2) at 140 K is found to produce two long-lived O(2)(-) surface species associated with different cation surface sites. Reduced TiO(2), produced by annealing in vacuum, has been shown to be less efficient in hole trapping than oxidized TiO(2).     

An EPR study of two-electron sensitization by fragmentable electron donors

Fragmentable electron donors (FEDs) are molecules designed to undergo bond fragmentation after capturing the hole created by photoexposure of silver halide. By design, the radical remaining after fragmentation is a potent reductant expected to be capable of injecting an electron into the conduction band of the silver halide. Thus, the addition of a FED to the AgX surface should allow the creation of two electrons for each photon absorbed by the substrate. Photographic studies have confirmed that the addition of FEDs can increase the photosensitivity of AgX materials. In this work, EPR spectroscopy was employed to study the processes of hole capture, donor fragmentation, and secondary electron injection by FEDs in AgBr dispersions. To do so, we used AgBr microcrystals doped with diamagnetic transition metal complexes that act as deep electron traps. For samples exposed to actinic light at 15 K, secondary electron injection was detected as an increase in the EPR signal from electrons trapped at the dopant upon annealing the samples above 50 K. Organic radical intermediates and self-trapped hole centers were the other paramagnetic species monitored in this study. The results presented here confirm that the FED sensitization mechanisms originally proposed by Gould et al. take place at silver halide surfaces and result in additional electrons in the silver halide conduction band.     

LIGHT DISTRIBUTION AND ELECTRON DONATION IN THE Z SCHEME*

Abstract— Several recent reports indicate that the photosynthetic machinery possesses a device whereby the relative distribution of absorbed light energy into the two reaction centers can be varied in response to the environment in which the photosynthesizing cells or chloro-plasts are placed. Conditions reported which affect this distribution include the electron acceptor or electron donor system employed, the concentration of magnesium ions, and the preillumination history of the preparation. These observations are described and discussed in terms of their relevance to the interpretation of quantum yield and enhancement data. Several laboratories have presented evidence recently that chloroplasts, after undergoing a pretreatment which destroys their capacity to evolve oxygen, can still transfer electrons via both photosystems, provided an appropriate electron donor is added. It is shown that electron donors like manganous ions and ascorbate can compete effectively with water as electron donors to Photosystem II, in untreated chloroplasts.