Subjective response of people to simulated sonic booms in their homes

In order to determine the effect of the number of sonic boom occurrences on annoyance, a computer-based system was developed for studying the subjective response of people to the occurrence of simulated sonic booms in their homes. The system provided a degree of control over the noise exposure not found in community surveys and a degree of situational realism not available in the laboratory. A system was deployed for eight weeks in each of 33 homes. Each day from 4 to 63 sonic booms were played as the test subject went about his or her normal activities. At the end of the day, the test subjects rated their annoyance to the sonic booms heard during the day. The sonic booms consisted of different combinations of waveforms, levels, and occurrence rates. The experiment confirmed that the increase in annoyance resulting from multiple occurrences can be modeled by the addition of the term "10 * log(number of occurrences)" to the sonic boom level. Of several noise metrics considered, perceived level was the best annoyance predictor. Comparisons of the subjective responses to the different sonic boom waveforms found no differences that were not accounted for by the noise metrics.     

Evidence of wave front folding of sonic booms by a laboratory-scale deterministic experiment of shock waves in a heterogeneous medium

The influence of the planetary boundary layer on the sonic boom received at the ground level is known since the 1960s to be of major importance. Sonic boom propagation in a turbulent medium is characterized by an increase of the mean rise time and a huge variability. An experiment is conducted at a 1:100,000 scale in water to investigate ultrasonic shock wave interaction with a single heterogeneity. The experiment shows a very good scaling with sonic boom, concerning the size of the heterogeneities, the wave amplitude, and the rise time of the incident wave. The wave front folding associated with local focusing, and its link to the increase of the rise time, are evidenced by the experiment. The observed amplification of the peak pressure (by a factor up to 2), and increase of the rise time (by up to about one magnitude order), are in qualitative agreement with sonic boom observations. A nonlinear parabolic model is compared favorably to the experiment on axis, though the paraxial approximation turns out less precise off axis. Simulations are finally used to discriminate between nonlinear and linear propagations, showing nonlinearities affect mostly the higher harmonics that are in the audible range for sonic booms.     

Field measurements of sonic boom penetration into the ocean

Six sonic booms, generated by F-4 aircraft under steady flight at a range of altitudes (610-6100 m) and Mach numbers (1.07-1.26), were measured just above the air/sea interface, and at five depths in the water column. The measurements were made with a vertical hydrophone array suspended from a small spar buoy at the sea surface, and telemetered to a nearby research vessel. The sonic boom pressure amplitude decays exponentially with depth, and the signal fades into the ambient noise field by 30-50 m, depending on the strength of the boom at the sea surface. Low-frequency components of the boom waveform penetrate significantly deeper than high frequencies. Frequencies greater than 20 Hz are difficult to observe at depths greater than about 10 m. Underwater sonic boom pressure measurements exhibit excellent agreement with predictions from analytical theory, despite the assumption of a flat air/sea interface. Significant scattering of the sonic boom signal by the rough ocean surface is not detected. Real ocean conditions appear to exert a negligible effect on the penetration of sonic booms into the ocean unless steady vehicle speeds exceed Mach 3, when the boom incidence angle is sufficient to cause scattering on realistic open ocean surfaces.     

A computational analysis of sonic booms penetrating a realistic ocean surface

The last decade has seen a revival of sonic boom research, a direct result of the projected market for a new breed of supersonic passenger aircraft, its design, and its operation. One area of the research involves sonic boom penetration into the ocean, one concern being the possible disturbance of marine mammals from the noise generated by proposed high-speed civil transport (HSCT) flyovers. Although theory is available to predict underwater sound levels due to a sonic boom hitting a homogeneous ocean with a flat surface, theory for a realistic ocean, one with a wavy surface and bubbles near the surface, is missing and will be presented in this paper. First, reviews are given of a computational method to calculate the underwater pressure field and the effects of a simple wavy ocean surface on the impinging sonic boom. Second, effects are described for the implementation of three additional conditions: a sonic boom/ocean "wavelength" comparison, complex ocean surfaces, and bubbles near the ocean surface. Overall, results from the model suggest that the realistic ocean features affect the penetrating proposed HSCT sonic booms by modifying the underwater sound-pressure levels only about 1 decibel or less.     

Scattering of sonic booms by anisotropic turbulence in the atmosphere

An earlier paper [J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 98, 3412-3417 (1995)] reported on the comparison of rise times and overpressures of sonic booms calculated with a scattering center model of turbulence to measurements of sonic boom propagation through a well-characterized turbulent layer under moderately turbulent conditions. This detailed simulation used spherically symmetric scatterers to calculate the percentage of occurrence histograms of received overpressures and rise times. In this paper the calculation is extended to include distorted ellipsoidal turbules as scatterers and more accurately incorporates the meteorological data into a determination of the number of scatterers per unit volume. The scattering center calculation overpredicts the shifts in rise times for weak turbulence, and still underpredicts the shift under more turbulent conditions. This indicates that a single-scatter center-based model cannot completely describe sonic boom propagation through atmospheric turbulence.     

轰声和轰声测量的频率限

轰声陡峭的前沿和后沿，要求测量设备的频率响应范围越宽越好，但实际上，测量设备的频率响应范围总是有限的。本文从讨论Ｎ波的时域和频域特性出发，由设定的测量设备的频率范围。将Ｎ波从频域变回到时域，再由时域波形的畸变程度，提出声学测量设备应有的频率响应范围，将此用于轰声的测量，对一般精度的测量，设备的频响范围为０．１５－１３００Ｈｚ时，能量测量的理论误差不大于１％，峰值超压测量的理论误差不大于３％。     

An experimental and analytical study of a new flap valve for generating simulated sonic booms

The design, operation, and performance of a sonic boom simulator, featuring a radically new dual-flap valve and electromechanical control system, are described. This new flap valve with its large maximum throat area (160 cm²) was designed to regulate the air flow from a low pressure reservoir (up to 0·2 atm overpressure) into the apex of a large pyramidal horn (25 m long, 3 m × 3 m base), where the incoming low speed air flow (up to 150 m/s) produces a travelling simulated sonic boom or N-wave with relatively little superposed high frequency noise. As a consequence, the full scale simulated sonic boom is virtually free of superposed jet noise, a major advance over past work with such horn-type simulators. Additionally, an advanced gasdynamic analysis of the reservoir coupled with an advanced acoustic analysis of the wave motion in the horn is presented to predict the characteristics of the simulated sonic boom—wave form, amplitude, duration, and rise time. Predicted and measured overpressure signatures are shown to be in excellent agreement.     

超声速全机带动力短舱对近场压力信号和地面声爆的影响

新一代环保高效的超声速商用飞机是近年来研究的热点, 低声爆技术是关键技术之一。研究声爆的影响因素有助于推进低声爆设计技术的发展。就超声速飞机整机而言, 发动机对近场和远场压力信号及地面声爆的影响颇为重要。国内外众多学者和研究单位对此进行了研究。中国商飞北研中心针对超声速带动力对近场压力信号和声爆的影响展开了一系列研究, 选取美国AIAA声爆预测会议提供的低声爆验证标模NASA C25D, 针对通气短舱和动力短舱构型进行了数值模拟和分析研究, 采用基于Euler方法和基于RANS方法的定常计算, 通过波形参数法由近场压力信号计算地面声爆信号, 并转化为可感知强度值, 与部分参会者的结果进行了对比。总结了黏性、是否带动力对超声速飞机近场压力信号和声爆的影响, 为未来超声速商用飞机的低声爆设计储备技术基础。      

HABITUATION OF SLEEP TO ROAD TRAFFIC NOISE OBSERVED NOT BY POLYGRAPHY BUT BY PERCEPTION

The habituation of sleep to road traffic noise was investigated. Habituation of sleep is improvement of sleep quality. Nine male students aged 19-21 were exposed to tape-recorded road traffic noise ofL_eq 49·6 dB(A) in an experimental bedroom. Among 17 nights, the first four and the last three nights were non-exposure nights and the other consecutive 10 were exposure nights. The polygraphic sleep parameters were: sleep stages S1, S2, S(3+4), rapid eye movements (REM), and so on. Subjective sleep quality was assessed by five scales of a self-rating sleep questionnaire named the OSA, sleepiness (F1), sleep maintenance (F2), worry (F3), integrated sleep feeling (F4), and sleep initiation (F5). In this experiment, the habituation of sleep to road traffic noise was observed clearly in all of the subjective sleep parameters of the OSA, though all of the polygraphic sleep parameters showed little or no evidence of habituation. This suggests that habituation to noise has two aspects, sensation and perception mechanisms, corresponding to sleep polygraphy and to questionnaire respectively.     

Awakening effects of simulated sonic booms and aircraft noise on men and women

In the course of several studies, 22 male and female subjects, ranging in age from 5–75 years, have been stimulated while asleep by simulated sonic booms (ranging in intensity from 0·6 to 5·0 lb/ft² (239·5 N/m²), as if measured out of doors at ground level) and by indoor recordings of subsonic jet flyover noise (ranging in intensity from 101 to 119 PNdB, as if measured out of doors). The summarized results of these studies suggest that (i) children (5–8 years of age) are uniformly unaffected by noise during sleep; (ii) older subjects are more sensitive to noise than younger subjects; (iii) women are more sensitive to noise during sleep than are men; (iv) within an age group, individuals may vary widely with respect to their relative sensitivities to noise during sleep; and (v) the frequency of behavioral awakening is a function of the intensity of both the simulated sonic booms and the subsonic jet flyover noise.     

Diffraction of sonic booms around buildings resulting in the building spiking effect

The diffraction of a sonic boom around a building of finite dimensions yields amplification of the front shock and a positive spike that follows the tail shock in the pressure waveform recorded at the incident side of the building's exterior surface. This physical phenomenon is consistently found both in the data obtained from a 2006 NASA flight test and field experiment, and in the finite-difference time-domain simulation that models this particular experiment, and the authors call it the "building spiking" effect. This paper presents an analysis of the numerical and the accompanying experimental results used to investigate the cause of this effect. The simulation assumes linear acoustics only, which sufficiently describes the physics of interest. Separating the low and high frequency components of boom recordings using optimal finite impulse response filters with complementary magnitude responses shows that the building spiking effect can be attributed to the frequency dependent nature of diffraction. A comparison of the building spiking effect of a conventional N-wave and a low-amplitude sonic boom shows that a longer shock rise time leads to less pronounced amplification of the exterior pressure loading on buildings, and thus reveals an advantage of shaping a boom to elongate its rise time.     

Turbulent jet interaction with a long rise-time pressure signature

A sonic boom signature with a long rise time has the ability to reduce the sonic boom, but it does not necessarily minimize the sonic boom at the ground level because of the real atmospheric turbulence. In this study, an effect of the turbulence on a long rise-time pressure signature was experimentally investigated in a ballistic range facility. To compare the effects of the turbulence on the long and short rise-time pressure signatures, a cone-cylinder projectile that simultaneously produces these pressure signatures was designed. The pressure waves interacted with a turbulent field generated by a circular nozzle. The turbulence effects were evaluated using flow diagnostic techniques: high-speed schlieren photography, a point-diffraction interferometer, and a pressure measurement. In spite of the fact that the long and short rise-time pressure signatures simultaneously travel through the turbulent field, the turbulence effects do not give the same contribution to these overpressures. Regarding the long rise-time pressure signature, the overpressure fluctuation due to the turbulence interaction is almost uniform, and a standard deviation 1.5 times greater than that of the no-turbulence case is observed. By contrast, a short rise-time pressure signature which passed through the same turbulent field is strongly affected by the turbulence. A standard deviation increases by a factor of 14 because of the turbulence interaction. Additionally, there is a non-correlation between the overpressure fluctuations of the long and short rise-time pressure signatures. These results deduce that the length of the rise time is important to the turbulence effects such as the shock focusing/diffracting.     

火箭发射的次声信号分析*

在距离发射点20km和230km的两个阵列上,记录了我国一次火箭发射产生的次声波。从信号中识别出点火与声爆事件,观察到火箭在飞行中产生持续的次声波,以及声爆前后明显能量特征上的变化,观测到完整的火箭发射和飞行过程中系列次声波。为了验证采集信号中包含声爆事件,使用Fisher检测估计方位角和视速度,计算结果与火箭飞行轨迹一致,并且声爆信号的预计到达时间和估计方位与实际的时间和方位角相符合。结合火箭速度变化的特征,给出了声爆前低频能量较弱现象的解释和火箭超声速后次声能量特征的变化,揭示了火箭产生次声波的机理,为火箭发射等目标的监测提供有益的借鉴和参考。     

Sonic boom signatures and ray focusing in general manoeuvres: I. Analytical foundations and computer formulation

Procedures are developed for calculating pressure signatures and ray patterns of sonic booms with special attention to focusing effects in general manoeuvres. The format employs a model atmosphere which is piecewise linear in wind and sound speeds, and piece-wise constant in wind direction. Expressions for ray trajectories and ray-tube areas are obtained in closed form for an aircraft in arbitrary manoeuvres. A mathematical formalism is developed for identifying the focusing ray, leading to a direct and accurate determination of the caustic surface ground intercept. The present algorithms complement those of Hayes to form the basis for a comprehensive computer program for predicting sonic boom properties. There appears to be a ten-fold reduction in computing time as compared with the Hayes-Haefeli program.     

Repeated elicitation of the acoustic startle reflex leads to sensitisation in subsequent avoidance behaviour and induces fear conditioning

Background  

Autonomous reflexes enable animals to respond quickly to potential threats, prevent injury and mediate fight or flight responses. Intense acoustic stimuli with sudden onsets elicit a startle reflex while stimuli of similar intensity but with longer rise times only cause a cardiac defence response. In laboratory settings, habituation appears to affect all of these reflexes so that the response amplitude generally decreases with repeated exposure to the stimulus. The startle reflex has become a model system for the study of the neural basis of simple learning processes and emotional processing and is often used as a diagnostic tool in medical applications. However, previous studies did not allow animals to avoid the stimulus and the evolutionary function and long-term behavioural consequences of repeated startling remain speculative. In this study we investigate the follow-up behaviour associated with the startle reflex in wild-captured animals using an experimental setup that allows individuals to exhibit avoidance behaviour.     

Characterization of the perceived sound of trauma-induced tinnitus in gerbils

Tinnitus often develops following inner ear pathologies, like acoustic trauma. Therefore, an acoustic trauma model of tinnitus in gerbils was established using a modulated acoustic startle response. Cochlear trauma evoked by exposure to narrow-band noise at 10 kHz was assessed by auditory brainstem responses (ABR) and distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAE). Threshold shift amounted to about 25 dB at frequencies >?10 kHz. Induction of a phantom-noise perception was documented by an acoustic startle response paradigm. A reduction of the gap-prepulse inhibition of acoustic startle (GPIAS) was taken as evidence for tinnitus at the behavioral level. Three to five weeks after trauma the ABR and DPOAE thresholds were back to normal. At that time, a reduction of GPIAS in the frequency range 16-20 kHz indicated a phantom noise perception. Seven weeks post trauma the tinnitus-affected frequency range became narrow and shifted to the center-trauma frequency at 10 kHz. Taken together, by investigating frequency-dependent effects in detail, this study in gerbils found trauma-evoked tinnitus developing in the frequency range bordering the low frequency slope of the induced noise trauma. This supports the theory of lateral inhibition as the physiological basis of tinnitus.     

DIFFERENT EFFECTS OF ROAD TRAFFIC NOISE AND FROGS' CROAKING ON NIGHT SLEEP

This study was designed to assess the effects of road traffic noise and frogs' croaking on the objective and subjective quality of sleep in a laboratory. The subjects were seven male students aged 19-21 years. They were exposed to recorded road traffic noise and frogs' croaking, with 49·6 and 49·5 dB(A)L_Aeq , and 71·2 and 56·1 dB(A) L_Amax, respectively. The background noise in the experimental room was 31·0 dB(A) L_Aeq. The sleep EEG was recorded according to standard methods. The sleep polygraphic parameters examined were the percentage of sleep stage relative to the total sleep time (%S1, %S2, %S(3+4), %SREM, %MT), total sleep time, sleep onset latency, and awakening during sleep in minutes and sleep efficiency. A structured sleep rating questionnaire (OSA), was administered to the subjects after they awakened. The %S2 increased and the %SREM decreased during exposure to road traffic noise. However, no significant effect of exposure to frogs' croaking was observed on any of the polygraphic sleep parameters. The subjective quality of sleep was degraded more by exposure to road traffic noise than that to frogs' croaking.     

Characteristics of road traffic noise in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Noise pollution due to road traffic is a major global concern because of its negative impact on the quality of life in communities everywhere. In Vietnam, traffic noise has become an increasingly noticeable and serious problem in large cities like Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. To gain more insight into the characteristics of this noise, intensive noise measurements were conducted in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City in September 2005 and September 2007, respectively. A comprehensive dataset of noise was obtained that included 24-h noise measurements as well as short-term noise recordings. The volume of traffic was also quantified by reproducing video camera recordings. Noise datasets from both cities were then compared with a dataset of Japanese traffic noise obtained in Kumamoto. The results showed that the traffic noise in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City was characterized by relatively high noise exposure levels due to the large number of motorbikes and frequent horn sounds. The sound of horns contributed a definite impact of 0-4 dB on noise exposure in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, where noise levels decreased with the absence of horn sounds. Our results also showed differences in the characteristic traffic noise of Vietnam and Japan.     

Synaptic depression and short-term habituation are located in the sensory part of the mammalian startle pathway

Background  

Short-term habituation of the startle response represents an elementary form of learning in mammals. The underlying mechanism is located within the primary startle pathway, presumably at sensory synapses on giant neurons in the caudal pontine reticular nucleus (PnC). Short trains of action potentials in sensory afferent fibers induce depression of synaptic responses in PnC giant neurons, a phenomenon that has been proposed to be the cellular correlate for short-term habituation. We address here the question whether both this synaptic depression and the short-term habituation of the startle response are localized at the presynaptic terminals of sensory afferents. If this is confirmed, it would imply that these processes take place prior to multimodal signal integration, rather than occurring at postsynaptic sites on PnC giant neurons that directly drive motor neurons.     

Simplified approach to the vibration analysis of elastic plates due to sonic boom

A theoretical study of the response of a flat plate to a sonic boom excitation is presented. For such a study, the problem of transient vibrations of elastic plates having clamped or simply supported boundary conditions under a pulse load in the shape of a capital N corresponding to a typical far-field sonic boom disturbance is discussed in a new fashion by using the concept of iso-amplitude contour lines on the surface of the plate. Series solutions consisting of products of eigenfunctions times functions of time are employed to analyse the motions. As an illustration of the technique, an elliptical plate subjected to a typical N wave arriving at normal incidence is chosen as a model because this involves a curvilinear boundary of a relatively simple shape, yet has no simple exact solution. Closed form solutions are obtained for both clamped as well as simply supported edges. The results have technical importance for the prediction of response of window panes and wall-panels to sonic boom. All details are explained by graphs.