Electromigration and mechanical stress in aluminium conductor tracks passivated by anodisation

The electromigration lifetime of integrated circuit metallisation is commonly found to increase if the metallisation is covered with a passivation layer such as glass. We have investigated the electromigration behaviour of aluminium conductor stripes under different thicknesses of oxide passivation formed by anodisation. The ionic drift velocity of anodised stripes was measured using the Blech-Kinsbron edge displacement technique (Thin Solid Films 25 327 (1975)) and it was found that the drift velocity decreased with increasing anodisation thickness. Stripes tested with a reversed current drifted backwards with an initial velocity which exceeded the original forward velocity. These results are related to a change in the self-diffusivity of aluminium as a result of high compressive stresses imposed by the anodised layer, and the distribution of stress in a drifting stripe is discussed. A general conclusion is that passivation layers can support compressive stresses sufficient to retard mechanical failure processes in metallisation in two distinct ways, either by raising the threshold stress for the nucleation of damage such as hillocks or whiskers, or by reducing the diffusivity in the metallisation.     

Thermomechanical Stress and Strain in Solder Joints During Electromigration

Thermomechanical stress and strain in the solder joints of a dummy area array package were studied as electromigration occurred. A current density of 0.4 × 10⁴ A/cm² was applied to this package, constructed with 9 × 9 solder joints in a daisy chain, to perform the electromigration test. After 37 h, the first joint on the path of the electron flow broke off at the cathode, and the first three solder joints all exhibited a typical accumulation of intermetallic compounds at the anode. Different solder joints exhibited dissimilar electromigration states, such as steady state and nonsteady state. Finite element analysis indicated that during steady-state electromigration, although the symmetrical structure produced uniform distributions of current density and Joule heating in all solder joints, the distribution of temperature was nonuniform. This was due to the imbalanced heat dissipation, which in turn affected the distribution of thermomechanical stress and strain in the solder joints. The maximum thermomechanical stress and strain, as well the highest temperature and current crowding, appeared in the Ni/Cu layer of each joint. The strain in the Ni/Cu layer was significant along the z-axis, but was constrained in the x–y plane. The thermomechanical stress and strain increased with advancing electromigration; thus, a potential delamination between the Ni/Cu layer and the printed circuit board could occur.     

互连铝通孔电迁移特征及其可靠性研究

研究了超大规模集成电路铝互连系统中铝通孔的电迁移失效机理及其可靠性寿命评价技术.试验采用CMOS和BiCMOS两种工艺各3组的铝通孔样品,分别在三个温度、恒定电流的加速条件下试验,以通孔开路为电迁移失效判据,最后得到了在加速条件下互连铝通孔的电迁移寿命,其结果符合标准的威布尔分布,试验准确可行.通过电迁移模型对试验数据进行了拟合,得到了激活能、电流加速因子和温度加速因子,计算出了正常工作条件下通孔电迁移的寿命,完成了对铝通孔电迁移的研究和寿命评价.     

VLSI金属互连线1/f γ噪声指数与电迁移失效

对VLSI的金属互连线实施高应力下的加速寿命试验和常规应力下的噪声频谱测量,得到了金属薄膜1/f ^γ噪声的频率指数γ在电迁移演化过程中的变化规律,发现γ指数在寿命试验的某个时间点发生突变,从1.0上升到1.6以上.这种突变可以归因于电迁移诱发空洞形成过程的起点,因而是金属薄膜结构开始发生不可逆结构变化的标志.1/ f ^γ噪声指数因子可望成为金属薄膜电迁移损伤程度或寿命的一个表征参量.     

Electromigration Behavior in Sn-37Pb and Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu Flip-Chip Solder Joints under High Current Density

The electromigration of conventional Sn-37Pb and Pb-free Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu (in wt.%) solder bumps was investigated with a high current density of 2.5 × 10⁴ A/cm² at 423 K using flip-chip specimens comprised of an upper Si chip and a lower bismaleimide triazine (BT) substrate. Electromigration failure of the Sn-37Pb and Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu solder bumps occurred with complete consumption of electroless Ni immersion Au (ENIG) underbump metallization (UBM) and void formation at the cathode side of the solder bump. Finite element analysis and computational simulations indicated high current crowding of electrons in the patterned Cu on the Si chip side, whereas the solder bumps and Cu line of the BT substrate had a relatively low density of flowing electrons. These findings were confirmed by the experimental results. The electromigration reliability of the Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu solder joint was superior to that of Sn-37Pb.     

Combined low-frequency noise and resistance measurements for void extraction in deep-submicrometer interconnects

Electromigration stress can give rise to voids that increase the resistance and localized thermal stress in interconnects. Estimation of the extent of voiding can provide information on the material quality and the amount of degradation that has resulted from the electrical stress. In this paper, a model is proposed that can be used to estimate the effective void volume in deep-submicrometer interconnects. The model uses a combination of low-frequency noise and resistance measurements, and also considers the thermal coefficient of resistance in calculating the change in resistance of the interconnect line. A deconvolution scheme was employed to extract the 1/f noise component from the noise-measurements to improve the accuracy of the extraction algorithm. To verify the accuracy of the model, the focused ion beam (FIB) technique was used to mill holes (to simulate voids) of known dimensions. The model was further applied to an electromigration stress study of aluminum (Al) interconnects as a method of testing its validity for stress-induced voids. The proposed technique is a useful reliability tool for void detection in deep-submicrometer interconnects.     

The Overlapped Electron‐Cloud Model for Electron Transfer in Contact Electrification

Contact electrification (CE) is one of the oldest topics in physics, which has been discussed for more than 2600 years. Recently, an overlapped electron‐cloud (OEC) model was proposed by Wang to explain all types of CE phenomena for general materials in which a deep overlapping of electron clouds belonging to two atoms results in a lowered potential barrier for electron transfer from one to the other by applying a compressive force, which is simply referred to as Wang transition for CE. Here, the degree of electron‐cloud overlap between two atoms is controlled by using tapping mode atomic force microscopy. A temperature difference and electric field are applied between atoms of two surfaces. It is found that electron transfer only occurs when the contact tip and sample interact in the repulsive‐force region, which corresponds to a strong overlap of the electron clouds. Such a fact even preserves if the tip is at a higher temperature than the sample for 120 K. Alternatively, by applying a bias, electron tunneling would occur when the tip is in the attractive‐force region within which normal electron transfer would not occur. These studies solidify the overlapped electron‐cloud model first proposed by Wang. Further, the temperature and bias effects on the CE are explained based on a modified OEC model.     

环氧模塑料中导热通道的构造与导热性能

以低密度聚乙烯(LDPE)为原料,添加不同含量的高导热氮化硅陶瓷颗粒和短切玻璃纤维,熔融挤出不同直径的Si3N4/LDPE杆料。采用热模压法制备了环氧模塑料(EMC)。研究了杆料直径、陶瓷填充量对EMC导热性能、介电性能的影响。结果表明:在相同填充量下,杆料直径越大,样品热导率越大;5mm含玻纤杆料φ(填充量)为40%,热导率高达2.1W/(m·K)。样品的εr随杆料填充量的增大而显著减小,φ5mm含玻纤杆料填充量为40%时降至最低,为3.25(1MHz)。     

微型FBG-MEMS压力传感器在静压桩贯入过程测量中的应用

为研究静压桩在贯入过程中受力特性及后期的残 余应力分布特征,通过刻槽法在模 型桩身安装光纤光栅(fiber Bragg grating,简称FBG)传感器,及安装于桩端的微型硅压 阻式土压力传感器,测得了桩端阻力和桩侧摩阻力等随贯入深度的变化规律,通过试验明确 了均质黏性土中静压桩的贯入特性。试验结果表明:光纤光栅传感技术能够较好的满足黏性 土中静压沉桩特性的测试需求,成功测得沉桩阻力的分布及变化规律;在均质黏性土中沉桩 时,桩侧阻力与桩端阻力的所占比例是变化的。在沉桩初期,桩侧阻力所占比例较小,而在 沉桩中后期,侧摩阻力所占比例不断增大,但桩端阻力所占比例仍高于桩侧阻力所占比例; 桩侧摩阻力存在退化现象,且退化程度和退化速率随贯入深度的增加逐渐减小;桩身施工残 余应力随深度的增加先增大后减小,其中性点约在距桩顶9D处,而桩侧残余摩阻力随深度的 增加呈先增大后减小的趋势,由负摩阻力逐步转变为正摩阻力。研究结果可为黏性土地基静 压桩的工程实践提供借鉴与参考。     

双沟道实空间电子转移晶体管的设计、研制和特性测量

采用双沟道结构和GaAs衬底,成功设计研制了双沟道实空间电子转移晶体管.它具有RSTT典型的"A"形负阻I-V特性和较宽的平坦谷值区.通过栅压可改变各种负阻参数值,当栅压从0.6V增至1.0V时,PVCR的变化范围是2.1～10.6峰值电流跨导约为3×10-4 S.负阻参数VP,VV和开始产生负阻的栅极阈值电压都小于国际上同类器件的报道值,因此更适合低功耗的运用.     

双沟道实空间电子转移晶体管的设计、研制和特性测量

采用双沟道结构和GaAs衬底,成功设计研制了双沟道实空间电子转移晶体管.它具有RSTT典型的"A"形负阻I-V特性和较宽的平坦谷值区.通过栅压可改变各种负阻参数值,当栅压从0.6V增至1.0V时,PVCR的变化范围是2.1～10.6峰值电流跨导约为3×10-4 S.负阻参数VP,VV和开始产生负阻的栅极阈值电压都小于国际上同类器件的报道值,因此更适合低功耗的运用.     

我国西南山区降雨侵蚀力时空变化趋势研究

降水是一种常见的自然现象,在气候调节中起着极为重要的作用. 同时,由于降水在空间、时间上的不均匀性,会发生诸如洪涝、干旱等自然灾害,给人类的经济、生活等造成严重影响,为了防治这类自然灾害,需要我们进行准确而及时的降水监测. 本文使用人工智能的手段,将无线电在传播过程中由于降水引起的衰减作为研究对象,尝试从不同的衰减中找到降水量信息,进而达到降水监测的目的. 实测结果表明,使用通信基站作为信号源,以数据采集时的标准的气象降水信息作为标签,神经网络成功地学习到了衰减特征,且实验准确率在95%左右. 这说明,使用无线电传播链路结合人工智能的方法进行降雨监测是一种新型的降雨测量方法,具有一定的研究意义.     

西北半干旱区激光雷达探测卷云几何特征和光学厚度

为了研究中国西北半干旱区卷云几何特征和光学特性的时空分布特征,我们利用兰州大学半干旱气候与环境观测站（SACOL,35.95°N,104.14°E）的微脉冲激光雷达（MPL-4B）探测卷云过程,分析讨论了卷云的结构、光学性质及其时间变化特征,结果表明,卷云高度分布范围为7－10km,卷云经历了薄－厚－薄的过程,平均厚度为2.0±0.5km。卷云环境温度在－51～－39℃范围之内。卷云的光学厚度在0.084－1.649之间,光学厚度随几何厚度的增加而增大,平均光学厚度为0.651±0.403。多次散射效应对光学厚度大于0.3的卷云影响较大。卷云激光雷达比为17±17sr。薄卷云的激光雷达比要比厚卷云的大。光学厚度小于0.3的光学薄卷云出现高度在8.6km以上,环境温度低于－45℃,几何厚度小于1.5km,雷达比分布在5－69 sr。     

Simultaneously Achieved High Open‐Circuit Voltage and Efficient Charge Generation by Fine‐Tuning Charge‐Transfer Driving Force in Nonfullerene Polymer Solar Cells

To maximize the short‐circuit current density (J_SC) and the open circuit voltage (V_OC) simultaneously is a highly important but challenging issue in organic solar cells (OSCs). In this study, a benzotriazole‐based p‐type polymer (J61) and three benzotriazole‐based nonfullerene small molecule acceptors (BTA1‐3) are chosen to investigate the energetic driving force for the efficient charge transfer. The lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) energy levels of small molecule acceptors can be fine‐tuned by modifying the end‐capping units, leading to high V_OC (1.15–1.30 V) of OSCs. Particularly, the LUMO energy level of BTA3 satisfies the criteria for efficient charge generation, which results in a high V_OC of 1.15 V, nearly 65% external quantum efficiency, and a high power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 8.25%. This is one of the highest V_OC in the high‐performance OSCs reported to date. The results imply that it is promising to achieve both high J_SC and V_OC to realize high PCE with the carefully designed nonfullerene acceptors.     

外场下等离子体中波的增强和带电粒子流的加速

在不考虑碰撞机制的情况下,研究了外加高频电磁场(泵波)下等离子体中Langmuir波和离子声波的增强以及带电粒子流的加速.基于流体力学方程,推导了描述等离子体参量不稳定性的振动方程,进一步得到描述带电粒子流加速的数学表达式和有质动力的数学表达式.结果表明,在等离子体参量不稳定性的激发过程中,Langmuir波和离子声波得以增强以及带电粒子流由于泵波与Langmuir波(离子声波)的耦合而加速;有质动力的产生是由于泵波与Langmuir波(离子声波)的耦合而且它是参量不稳定过程的策动力,另外有质动力不仅存在高频分量,还存在低频分量.     

Quantum chemical calculations,synthesis and properties of novel organic molecules with photoinduced intramolecular electron transfer and large change in electric dipole moment in the excited state

The topic of this paper is bipolar organic compounds containing both charged electron donor and electron acceptor groups interconnected by various kinds of bridges (–D–X–A⁺). Such betaines are subject to photoinduced intramolecular electron transfer (PIET), large change in dipole moment in the excited state and considerable hyperpolarisability, which causes large non‐linear optical effects in solutions and Longmuir–Blodgett (LB) films. Quantum chemical calculations (CNDO/S, ZINDO/S) of some types of betaines containing a 1,3‐indandione anion or diazole anion electron donor part and an N‐pyridinium cation electron acceptor part show that the HOMO and LUMO are strongly localized and an effective PIET takes place. The calculated change in dipole moment in the excited state, δμ=μ_g−μ_ex , is substantial (8–20 D) and in many cases the direction of μ is reversed. The character of the bridge X in betaines shows the largest effect on μ_g and δμ, especially in the case of X=p‐phenylene. The pyrazole anion is a better electron donor than the 1,3‐indandione anion. The synthesis of betaines containing a 1,3‐indandione anion part of an N‐pyridinium cation part interconnected directly or through a p‐phenylene bridge has been achieved and their electron absorption spectra have been investigated. Preliminary experiments confirm NLO effects in solutions and LB films. The synthesis of novel substituted betaines is unlimited and the synthesis of polymer‐bonded or surface‐bonded betaines is possible. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Remarkable Improvements in Volumetric Energy and Power of 3D MnO2 Microsupercapacitors by Tuning Crystallographic Structures

Transition‐metal oxides as faradaic charge‐storage intermediates sandwiched between conductor and electrolyte are key components to store/deliver high‐density energy in microsupercapacitors for many applications in miniaturized portable electronics and microelectromechanical systems. While the conductor facilitating their electron transports, they generally suffer from a switch of rate‐determining step to their sluggish redox reactions in pseudocapacitive energy storage, during which poor cation accessibility and diffusion leads to high internal resistances and lowers volumetric capacitance and rate performance. Here it is shown that the faradaic processes in a model system of MnO₂ can be radically boosted by tuning crystallographic structures from cryptomelane (α‐MnO₂) to birnessite (δ‐MnO₂). As a result of greatly enhanced Na⁺ accessibility and diffusion, 3D layered crystalline δ‐MnO₂ microelectrodes exhibit volumetric capacitance as high as ≈922 F cm^?3 (≈1.5‐fold higher than α‐MnO₂, ≈617 F cm^?3) and excellent rate performance. This enlists δ‐MnO₂ microsupercapacitor to deliver ultrahigh stack electrical powers (up to ≈295 W cm^?3) while maintaining volumetric energy density much higher than that of thin‐film lithium battery.     

介质滤波器银层厚度与附着力对耐焊接热影响

通过化学方法制作无损伤坯体和银层的测量台阶,采用油墨制作测量台阶的图案,通过测高仪精确测量出银层厚度。将不同银层厚度的介质滤波器做耐焊接热可靠性试验,得到多孔介质滤波器最合适的银层厚度区间。结果表明,多孔介质滤波器烧银温度在820℃时,银层附着力达到最大点;采用化学法制作的测量台阶,通过接触法测量误差最小;多孔介质滤波器银层厚度≥0.015mm,能满足耐焊接热的可靠性要求。     

Disordered Atomic Packing Structure of Metallic Glass: Toward Ultrafast Hydroxyl Radicals Production Rate and Strong Electron Transfer Ability in Catalytic Performance

Developing new functional applications of metallic glasses in catalysis is an active and pivotal topic for materials science as well as novel environmental catalysis processes. Compared to the crystalline materials with highly ordered atomic packing, metallic glass has a simply disordered atomic structure. Recent reports have demonstrated that the metallic glasses are indeed having many superiorly catalytic properties, yet the understanding of the mechanism is insufficient. In this work, the structural relaxation (α‐relaxation) by annealing in an amorphous Fe₇₈Si₉B₁₃ alloy is studied for unraveling the catalytic mechanism at the atomic scale. The volume fractions of the crystalline structures, such as α‐Fe, Fe₂Si, and Fe₂B, in the as‐received and annealed metallic glasses are fully characterized. It is found that the randomly atomic packing structure with weak atomic bonding in the as‐received metallic glass has an efficient electron transfer capability, presenting advanced superiorities in the aspects of production rate of hydroxyl radicals (?OH), dye degradation rate (k ), and essential degradation ability (K _SA) for water treatment. The discovery of this critically important work unveils why using metallic glasses as catalysts has higher reactivity than the crystalline materials, and more importantly, it provides new research opportunities into the study of synthetic catalysts.     

调整VO2薄膜相变特性和TCR的制备及辐照方法

采用不同的真空还原时间、真空退火温度和衬底制备出了VO2薄膜,并对制备出的薄膜进行电子辐照.通过测试辐照前后的VO2薄膜相变电学性能及低温半导体相电阻温度系数(TCR),表明不同的制备工艺和不同注量的电子辐照可明显改变VO2薄膜相变过程中电学性能,提高薄膜的电阻温度系数.对影响VO2热致相变薄膜电学性能及电阻温度系数的因素进行了讨论.