Generation of Rayleigh waves into mortar and concrete samples

The paper deals with a non-destructive method for characterizing the degraded cover of concrete structures using high-frequency ultrasound. In a preliminary study, the authors emphasized on the interest of using higher frequency Rayleigh waves (within the 0.2-1 MHz frequency band) for on-site inspection of concrete structures with subsurface damage. The present study represents a continuation of the previous work and aims at optimizing the generation and reception of Rayleigh waves into mortar and concrete be means of wedge transducers. This is performed experimentally by checking the influence of the wedge material and coupling agent on the surface wave parameters. The selection of the best combination wedge/coupling is performed by searching separately for the best wedge material and the best coupling material. Three wedge materials and five coupling agents were tested. For each setup the five parameters obtained from the surface wave measurement i.e. the frequency band, the maximal available central frequency, the group velocity error and its standard deviation and finally the error in velocity dispersion characteristic were investigated and classed as a function of the wedge material and the coupling agent. The selection criteria were chosen so as to minimize the absorption of both materials, the randomness of measurements and the systematic error of the group velocity and of dispersion characteristic. Among the three tested wedge materials, Teflon was found to be the best. The investigation on the coupling agent shows that the gel type materials are the best solutions. The "thick" materials displaying higher viscosity were found as the worst. The results show also that the use of a thin plastic film combined with the coupling agent even increases the bandwidth and decreases the uncertainty of measurements.     

High frequency ultrasonic characterization of human vocal fold tissue

Recently, endolaryngeal sonography at frequencies ranging from 10 to 30 MHz has been found to be useful in diagnosing diseases of the vocal folds (VFs). However, image resolution can be further improved by ultrasound at higher frequencies, necessitating the measurement of high-frequency acoustic properties of VF tissue. The ultrasonic parameters of integrated backscatter, sound velocity, and frequency-dependent attenuation coefficient were measured in both the lamina propria (LP) and vocalis muscle (VM) of human VFs using a 47 MHz high-frequency ultrasonic transducer. The integrated backscatter was -173.44+/-6.14 (mean+/-s.d.) and -195.13+/-3.58 dB in the LP and VM, respectively, the sound velocity was 1667.68+/-44.9 and 1595.07+/-39.33 ms, and the attenuation coefficient at 47 MHz was 8.28+/-1.72 and 7.17+/-1.30 dBmm. The difference between these ultrasonic parameters may be attributed to variations in the structure and fiber concentrations in VF tissue. These results could serve as a useful clinical reference for the further development of high-frequency ultrasound devices for endolarynx sonography applications.     

Assessment of broadband ultrasonic attenuation measurements in inhomogeneous media

In this paper, we address the problem of evaluating the acoustic attenuation of "difficult" media, i.e. highly attenuating and scattering media. In a broadband, through transmission setup, the signals acquired from such media are characterized by a poor signal-to-noise ratio. Therefore, an accurate estimate of attenuation cannot be obtained from a single measurement, but multiple measurements must be combined. Two methods are considered to yield a single estimate of attenuation from multiple measurements. The first one, the "average attenuation" (AA) method, consists in a simple average of individual attenuation estimates. The second one, the "cross spectrum" (CS) method, is based on a system identification approach. In order to evaluate the estimation errors for these methods, ultrasonic signals transmitted through a material of known attenuation were simulated and mixed with both coherent and incoherent noise. In all tests performed, the "CS" method was found to yield the most accurate estimate. This method, combined time delay compensation, is then applied to real signals measured from a concrete slab. A valid frequency band for the attenuation estimate can be defined based on the coherence function. Results from this research are being applied to characterize the degradation of concrete structures using high-frequency ultrasound.     

Water content and its effect on ultrasound propagation in concrete--the possibility of NDE

It is known that water content or moisture affects the strength of concrete. The purpose of this study is to examine the possibility of the NDE of concrete from a knowledge of the relationship between water content and ultrasonic propagation in concrete. The results of measurements made on the ultrasound velocity and the frequency component on ultrasonic propagation as a function of the water content in concrete are reported. Test pieces of concrete made from common materials were made for the fundamental studies. The test piece dimensions were 10 cm in diameter and 20 cm in length. Test pieces were immersed in water for about 50 days to saturate them. To measure the effect of different water contents, test pieces were put in a drying chamber to change the amount of water between measurements. This procedure was repeated until the concrete was completely dried and the weight no longer changed. Water contents were defined as weight percentage to full dried state. Thus water content could be changed from 8% to 0%. Using the pulse transmission method, ultrasonic propagation in the frequency range 20 to 100 kHz was measured as a function of water content. The sound velocity varied gradually from 3000 m/s to 4500 m/s according to the water content. The frequency of maximum transmission also depended on the water content in this frequency range. It is considered that the ultrasonic NDE of concrete strength is feasible.     

Propagation of ultrasonic waves in bulk gallium nitride (GaN) semiconductor in the presence of high-frequency electric field

The propagation of ultrasound is studied in bulk GaN semiconductor in the presence of a strong AC field oscillating at a frequency much higher than that of the ultrasound. Analytical expressions have been obtained for the attenuation coefficient (α) and the renormalised velocity (v) of the acoustic wave. It is shown that the dependencies of the ultrasonic absorption coefficient of the conduction electrons and the renormalised sound velocity on the field amplitude and the sound frequency have an oscillatory character which can be used to determine the effective mass and mobility of the material. The threshold field needed to observe the oscillation is two orders smaller than that needed in the case of CdS.     

Hypersonic relaxation in amorphous polymers

In order to more fully understand the viscoelastic properties of amorphous polymers, it is desireable to have dynamic mechanical data over as wide a range in frequency as possible. One useful technique for studying the high-frequency behavior of polymers is to measure the velocity and attenuation of sound waves in the polymer fluid. When the frequency exceeds 109Hz. the sound waves are called hypersonic acoustic phonons. The present review examines the dynamic data obtained in the GHz frequency range for amorphous polymers.     

NDE of two-layered mortar samples using high-frequency Rayleigh waves

The Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves (SASW) is a popular technique in seismics for imaging the ground subsurface. It uses the dispersive properties of Rayleigh waves in a transversely homogeneous, multilayered medium. The SASW approach is being transposed into the civil engineering domain to characterize subsurface damage in concrete structures. Such a damage consists in a few millimeters thick surface layer with porosity slightly higher than in the sound material. It is induced by contact with moisture or chemicals at the surface of the structure and may facilitate penetration of aggressive agents. In this study, two-layered mortar samples are made to mimic concrete cover damage in real structures. The dispersive behavior of Rayleigh waves arises when the wavelength is comparable to the thickness of the first layer. Given the small thickness of this layer, it requires increasing the frequency up to several hundreds of kHz, which means high attenuation and low signal-to-noise ratio. Rayleigh waves with 0.5 MHz central frequency are generated into the samples by the wedge method. Phase velocity dispersion curves are obtained by broadband phase spectroscopy from signals received at various distances from the source. The signal processing is first validated on simulated signals with known dispersion law. Then, the measured dispersion curves are compared with the theoretical curve for a two-layered medium, following Haskell's approach. The measured curve displays the general behavior expected from theory. However, a three-layered, visco-elastic model would be necessary to get a better fit and to estimate more accurately the parameters of each layer.     

Application of the WKB method to calculating the group velocities and attenuation coefficients of normal waves in the arctic underwater waveguide

Algorithms based on the WKB approximation are proposed for the fast and accurate calculation of the group time delays and effective attenuation coefficients of normal waves in the deep-water sound channel of the Arctic Ocean. These characteristics of the modes are determined in the adiabatic approximation by integrating the local group velocity and attenuation coefficient over the horizontal distance between the ends of the propagation path. According to the WKB method, the local group velocity is the ratio of two quantities. The first one is the sum of the length of the ray corresponding to the mode and the side displacement of the ray at the reflection by the ice cover. The second one is the sum of the travel time of the sound signal along the ray cycle and the time delay caused by the side displacement. The grazing angle of the ray is determined from the condition of quantization for the phase integral. According to the WKB method, the local attenuation coefficient of the mode is specified as the ratio of the squared modulus of the coherent reflection coefficient at the lower boundary of the ice cover and the sum of the cycle length and the side displacement of the ray. Simple recurrent relations are proposed to estimate, with fair accuracy and short calculating time, the phase integral, the integral that describes the cycle length, and the related local group velocities and attenuation coefficients. The capacity and efficiency of the algorithms are confirmed by the comparison of the aforementioned mode characteristics calculated by using the proposed relations and the precise computer code. The calculations are performed with the sound speed profiles obtained from the temperature and salinity measurements during the SEVER and SCICEX-1995 expeditions.     

Phase change measurement,and speed of sound and attenuation determination,from underwater acoustic panel tests

A technique for measuring the change in phase produced by the insertion of a panel between a projector and receiver is described. Presented also is a procedure for determining the phase speed and attenuation of the panel material. Although the methods were developed over the frequency decade 10-100 kHz, they are not limited to that band. It was observed that a "settling time" of approximately 20 min is required to obtain reproducible phase measurements if the experiment is disturbed even slightly. For example, rotating the panel 10 degrees, then immediately returning to the original position, causes the observed phases to differ by up to 10 deg from those obtained prior to the disturbance. These differences are distributed randomly across frequency. Temperature stabilization within the medium as well as the material is also required before measurements can take place. After the stated 20 min settling time, however, the phases return to the values obtained prior to rotation, or after temperature stabilization, to within +/- 1/2 deg. The sound speed and attenuation determination technique employs least-squares fitting of a causal model to the measurements. Four (or fewer) adjusted parameters accommodate the measurements over the stated frequency decade, even for samples that exhibit significant dispersion. The sound speed is typically determined to an accuracy of +/- 30 m/s, as judged from a propagation-of-error calculation. This model assumes single-layered panels.     

Sound wave attenuation in foam

Experimental measurements are presented for sound wave attenuation in foam without additives (standing wave method) and in foam with added particles (pulse method). A setup is developed that makes it possible to obtain a standing sound wave in stable foam and estimate the attenuation coefficient. A comparison is made of the coefficients of sound attenuation in foam in the sonic and ultrasonic frequency ranges, which have been published in a number of works. It is shown that the introduction of particles into foam leads to an increase in sound wave attenuation and may be the result of the viscous mechanism of sound wave energy loss.     

Acoustic impedance measurements with a sound intensity meter

Acoustic impedance measurements have been made by evaluating, with a sound intensity meter, sound pressure and normal velocity close to absorbing material samples.Measurements have been made both in a Kundt interferometer and in the free field. With the Kundt interferometer the same results are achieved as with the classical Kundt interferometer but the present method is much faster and easier to implement.Free field measurements are accurate for frequencies high enough to allow one to neglect the finite dimension effect of the absorbing material sample.     

Broadband time-domain reflectometry measurement of attenuation and phase velocity in highly attenuating suspensions with application to the ultrasound contrast medium Albunex

We describe a technique for broadband measurements of the attenuation coefficient and phase velocity of highly attenuating liquid suspensions. To validate the technique we apply it to the ultrasound contrast agent Albunex at concentrations ranging from 0.69 x 10(6) particles/mL to 364 x 10(6) particles/mL. These longitudinal wave measurements were performed on Albunex suspensions maintained at 37 degrees C in a special time-domain reflectometer designed and constructed in our laboratory. The frequency-dependent attenuation coefficients and phase velocities obtained in the reflectometer are compared to broadband through-transmission measurements of these same quantities, which were also performed in our laboratory. Although comparison data between the two techniques are only available at lower concentrations, the agreement is quite good and serves to validate the methods described in this paper.     

Ultrasonic wave propagation in heterogeneous solid media: theoretical analysis and experimental validation

This research deals with the ultrasonic characterization of thermal damage in concrete. This damage leads to the appearance of microcracks which then evolve in terms of volume rate and size in the material. The scattering of ultrasonic waves from the inclusions is present in this type of medium. The propagation of the longitudinal wave in the heterogeneous media is studied via a homogenization model that integrates the multiple scattering of waves. The model allows us to determine the phase velocity and the attenuation according to the elements which make the medium. Simulations adapted to the concrete are developed in order to test the responses of the model. These behaviors are validated by an experimental study: the measurements of phase velocity and attenuation are performed in immersion, with a comparison method, on a frequency domain which ranges from 160 kHz to 1.3 MHz. The analysis of different theoretical and experimental results obtained on cement-based media leads to the model validation, on the phase velocity behavior, in the case of a damage simulated by expanded polystyrene spheres in granular media. The application to the case of a thermally damaged concrete shows a good qualitative agreement for the changes in velocity and attenuation.     

Low-frequency resonance dispersion of sound in the bubble media

Results of experimental studies of low-frequency acoustics of gas-liquid bubble media aimed at the check-up of the theory of resonance dispersion of sound of a new type are presented. According to the theory, together with well-known high-frequency dispersion of sound in the gas-liquid media, connected with resonance of volumetric bubble oscillations and, respectively, with resonance compressibility, there should be lowfrequency resonance dispersion of sound caused by resonance of related spheroidal-progressive bubble oscillations and, correspondingly, by resonance of the efficient dynamic density of a medium. It is shown that experimental data on the velocity and attenuation coefficient of sound in the bubble media prove the existence of resonance dispersion caused by related progressive-deformation oscillations of bubbles. The work was financially supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (Grant No. 05-02-96720) and Obninsk Administration.     

Dispersion of the high-frequency sound velocity in the aqueous solution of 4-methylpyridine

Dispersion of the high-frequency sound velocity in the aqueous solution of 4-methylpyridine with the concentration 0.06 mole fraction corresponding to the singular point in the temperature-concentration phase diagram is studied. Along with observation of positive dispersion of the speed of sound in going over from ultrasound to hypersound frequencies (5.4 MHz to 4.8 GHz), negative dispersion (a decrease in velocity with increasing frequency) was also observed in a narrow interval of hypersound frequencies from 4.8 to 6.1 GHz.     

Time-domain calculations of sound interactions with outdoor ground surfaces

A time-domain formulation for sound propagation in rigid-frame porous media, including waveform attenuation and dispersion, is developed. The new formulation is based on inversion of the relaxation functions from a previous model [Wilson DK, Ostashev VE, Collier SL. J Acoust Soc Am 2004;116:1889-92], thereby casting the convolution integrals in a form amenable to numerical implementation. Numerical techniques are developed that accurately implement the relaxational equations and transparently reduce to previous results in low- and high-frequency limits. The techniques are demonstrated on calculations of outdoor sound propagation involving hills, barriers, and ground surfaces with various material properties. We also compare the relaxation formulation to a widely applied phenomenological model developed by Zwikker and Kosten. The two models can be made equivalent if the resistance constant, structure constant, and compression modulus in the ZK model are allowed to be weakly frequency dependent. But if the ZK parameters are taken to be constant, as is typically the case, the relaxation model provides more accurate calculations of attenuation by acoustically soft porous materials such as snow, gravel, and forest litter.     

Long-path measurements of ultrasonic attenuation and velocity for very dilute slurries and liquids and detection of contaminates

The objective was to use multiple paths through the slurry to determine the lowest concentration that provided accurate attenuation measurements and to measure the velocity of sound through an effective long path. Ultrasonic attenuation measurements were obtained for slurries of silica (10 microm diameter) in water for concentrations of 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75% and 1% silica by weight. Attenuation measurements for concentrations less than 0.1% may prove useful for process control to detect contaminants. A long path is obtained due to multiple reflections occurring within the stainless steel (SS) vessel used; broad-band transducers are affixed on the outside of the thick-walled vessel. The signal in the receive transducer permits the measurement of the attenuation and also the velocity by measuring the time-of-flight. The FFT of the appropriate signal for each echo was obtained and compared with that for water to yield the attenuation as a function of frequency. The attenuation measurements are self-calibrating because they are not affected by changes in the pulser voltage. The data show the feasibility for measuring a concentration of 0.025 wt% silica, which is equivalent to 0.25 g of silica in 1 l of water. Therefore, such measurements can prove useful for detecting contaminants in liquid. The velocity of sound measurements for solutions of hydrogen peroxide in water were obtained and accurate to about 0.3m/s, or 0.02% uncertainty.     

Spatial attenuation of different sound field components in a water layer and shallow-water sediments

The paper presents the results of an experimental study of spatial attenuation of low-frequency vector-scalar sound fields in shallow water. The experiments employed a towed pneumatic cannon and spatially separated four-component vector-scalar receiver modules. Narrowband analysis of received signals made it possible to estimate the attenuation coefficients of the first three modes in the frequency of range of 26–182 Hz and calculate the frequency dependences of the sound absorption coefficients in the upper part of bottom sediments. We analyze the experimental and calculated (using acoustic calibration of the waveguide) laws of the drop in sound pressure and orthogonal vector projections of the oscillation velocity. It is shown that the vertical projection of the oscillation velocity vector decreases significantly faster than the sound pressure field.