Sur un “effet de matrice” dans la polymerisation de l'acrylonitrile en masse

The kinetics of the radiation initiated polymerization of acrylonitrile at 20° have been investigated in the presence of a highly divided polyacrylonitrile obtained by polymerizing the crystalline monomer. This polymer catalyses the reaction to a much larger extent than polymer formed at 20°. The analogy between the kinetic features of the polymerizations of acrylic acid and acrylonitrile in bulk leads to extending to this last monomer the assumption of a “matrix effect” in its polymerization. This effect is believed to result from the dipole interaction of the nitrile groups which lead to the formation of a complex in which the double bonds are favourably oriented for the propagation. If the matrix-polymer is produced with a pre-irradiation dose at low temperature exceeding a critical value, inhibition occurs perhaps resulting from the addition of growing chains to the CN double bonds present in the matrix-polymer.     

Polymérisation en milieu précipitant du styrène en solution dans différents alcools

Earlier studies from this laboratory on the polymerizations of acrylic acid and acrylonitrile under precipitating conditions have shown that the auto-acceleration is not caused by non-stationary conditions resulting from the precipitation of growing chains (“occlusion effect”) but by a “matrix effect”, an oriented association complex between the monomer and the polymer formed in the early stages of the reaction leading to assisted propagation. In the present work, a non-polar monomer-polymer system was selected in which molecular associations are unlikely. It was found that when polystyrene precipitates as a fine powder (in diluted monomer solutions in alcohols) auto-acceleration is observed but its extent drops with increasing rate of initiation and increasing temperature. Such situations do not arise in polymerizing systems in which a “matrix effect” operates. The study of the post-polymerization and of the swelling of polystyrene in styrene (10-propanol (90) mixtures) led to the conclusion that polystyrene in equilibrium with this mixture exhibits a glass transition temperature at ca 50°. The various results obtained in this study conform with the assumption of an occlusion effect. The growing chains being buried in the precipitated polymer, chain termination is severely restricted and becomes the determining step in the polymerization.     

Pursuit of reinitiation efficiency of resonance‐stabilized monomeric allyl radical generated via “degradative monomer chain transfer” in allyl polymerization

For a deeper understanding of allyl polymerization mechanism, the reinitiation efficiency of resonance‐stabilized monomeric allyl radical was pursued because in allyl polymerization it is commonly conceived that the monomeric allyl radical generated via the allylic hydrogen abstraction of growing polymer radical from monomer, i.e., “degradative monomer chain transfer,” has much less tendency to initiate a new polymer chain and, therefore, this monomer chain transfer is essentially a termination reaction. Based on the renewed allyl polymerization mechanism in our preceding article, the monomer chain transfer constant in the polymerization of allyl benzoate was estimated to be 2.7 × 10^?2 at 80 °C under the polymerization condition, where the coupling termination reaction of growing polymer radical with allyl radical was negligible and, concurrently, the reinitiation reaction of allyl radical was enhanced significantly. The reinitiation efficiencies of monomeric allyl radical were pursued by the dead‐end polymerizations of allyl benzoate at 80, 105, and 130 °C using a small amount of initiators; they increased remarkably with raised temperature. Thus, the enhanced reinitiation reactivity of allyl radical at an elevated temperature could bias the well‐known degradative monomer chain transfer characteristic of allyl polymerization toward the chain transfer in common vinyl polymerization. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem, 2010     

Free radical polymerization of acrylonitrile in dimethylsulphoxide solutions

The gamma-ray initiated polymerization of acrylonitrile in DMSO solutions was investigated at various monomer concentrations and temperatures. In a narrow range of monomer concentrations (70–80%), the “auto-acceleration index” of the reaction is higher than in the bulk polymerization. Some auto-acceleration persists at high DMSO contents when the reaction proceeds in a homogeneous medium. The results are interpreted by a “matrix effect” which is enhanced in those mixtures in which the precipitated polymer particles are swollen to a larger extent by the reacting mixture.     

Influence des solvants sur les associations moleculaires et sur la cinetique de polymerisation de l'acrylonitrile. Precisions supplementaires sur l'“effet de matrice”

The polymerization of acrylonitrile is auto-accelerating in bulk and in solvents which do not dissolve the polymer. The “auto-acceleration indexes” remain almost constant in these systems. Trichloracetic acid, a very polar solvent, leads however to linear conversion curves. An earlier assumption is confirmed according to which auto-acceleration is not caused by non-stationary conditions but by an oriented association complex between the monomer and the polymer arising at the beginning of the reaction (“matrix effect”). DMF, a solvent for polyacrylonitrile, seems to produce a similar effect. The disappearance of auto-acceleration in DMF solutions was explained until now by the disappearance of the perturbation of the reaction connected with polymer precipitation (“occlusion effect”). Linear conversion curves were obtained, however, in 60% DMF solutions in which the polymer still precipitates. A detailed study of post-polymerization confirms the above interpretation. It is shown that auto-acceleration remains unaltered in the presence of solvents which swell polyacrylonitrile, such as acetonitrile or small amounts of DMF, whereas post-polymerization (caused by occluded chains) is strongly reduced. Moreover, a marked post-polymerization is observed in the presence of trichloracetic acid, demonstrating the presence of long-living chains in a system which gives rise to linear conversion curves. The association of acrylonitrile with numerous solvents is investigated; it is shown by swelling measurements that polyacrylonitrile associates with its monomer.     

Steady-state kinetics during initial stages of radical bulk polymerization of acrylonitrile

The bulk polymerization of acrylonitrile with azobisisobutyronitrile as initiator and FeCl₃ as terminator was studied at 60°C. It was found that the reaction proceeds like solution polymerization and does not exhibit the familiar autoacceleration found in bulk polymerizations. It was concluded that a steady-state condition of growing radical chains exists. Initial rates, to approximately 3% conversion, were measured dilatometrically and were found to be proportional to the ratio of the initiator to terminator concentration, where this ratio is smaller than 3 : 1 and are due to the predominance of the FeCl₃ monoradical termination mechanism. On increasing the ratio of initiator to FeCl₃, the usual biradical termination mechanism becomes important as well. Assuming that the ratio of propagation constant to termination constant in this work is similar to the knwon ratio in DMF solution, a monomer “effective” concentration in the bulk of about 20% of the nominal concentration of pure acrylonitrile (14.38 mole/l. at 60°C) can be calculated. This result is interpreted by a molecular mechanism for the bulk polymerization of acrylonitrile.     

γ-Radiation-initiated post-polymerization of methacrylic acid in the solid state

The solid-state postpolymerization of slowly crystallized methacrylic acid was studied at 0°C with ⁶⁰Co γ-radiation as the initiator. The yield, molecular weight, molecular weight distribution, and stereosequencing of the polymer product were determined as a function of polymerization time. The narrow molecular weight distribution and the linear dependence of molecular weight on polymer yield were attributed to a polymerization mechanism characterized by both independent chain propagation and essentially no termination step. The overall polymerization rate was substantially faster than that reported previously for shock-crystallized monomer, a result which was attributed to termination by the occlusion of propagating radicals at defects in the shock-crystallized monomer. Although largely atactic, the polymer synthesized in the solid state contained a secondary kind of stereosequencing; the meso triad probability was highest at the end of the chain, where propagation had initiated and decreased continuously with chain growth. The gradient in stereosequencing along the chains was attributed to defects that were introduced into the monomer crystals by the growing polymer chains.     

Sur une exaltation de l'“effet de matrice” lors de la polymerisation de l'acide acrylique dans certains melanges ternaires

The polymerization of acrylic acid proceeds with an extremely high degree of auto-acceleration in certain ternary mixtures. The most drastic effects are observed when small amounts of methanol are added to a dilute solution of acrylic acid in n-hexane. In such systems the auto-acceleration index “β” may exceed 10. β Was found to exhibit a maximum over a fairly narrow range of concentrations. Moreover, the values of β are highest at temperatures between ?5 and + 10°, where a maximum of 16 is reached. The swelling of poly(acrylic acid) in the various reacting mixtures was measured and the molecular associations of the monomer with itself and with methanol were investigated. It was concluded that the “exaltation of the matrix effect” in some of the systems is caused by the complex [(Acrylic acid)₂, McOH]. This complex associates very rapidly with the polymer formed in the early stages of the reaction to produce a structure in which ultrafast propagation occurs. The swelling of the polymer favours the accessibility of the monomer to the polymeric chains during polymerization, leading to auto-acceleration which progresses with conversion and gives rise to a reaction with explosive character.     

Ring‐opening polymerization of L‐lactide by rare‐earth tris(4‐tert‐butylphenolate) single‐component initiators

The ring‐opening polymerization of L ‐lactide initiated by single‐component rare‐earth tris(4‐tert‐butylphenolate)s was conducted. The influences of the rare‐earth elements, solvents, temperature, monomer and initiator concentrations, and reaction time on the polymerization were investigated in detail. No racemization was found from 70 to 100 °C under the examined conditions. NMR and differential scanning calorimetry measurements further confirmed that the polymerization occurred without epimerization of the monomer or polymer. A kinetic study indicated that the polymerization rate was first‐order with respect to the monomer and initiator concentrations. The overall activation energy of the ring‐opening polymerization was 79.2 kJ mol^?1. ¹H NMR data showed that the L ‐lactide monomer inserted into the growing chains with acyl–oxygen bond cleavage. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 42: 6209–6215, 2004     

Free-radical polymerization of guanidine acrylate and methacrylate and the conformational behavior of growing chains in aqueous solutions

Monomer salts based on acrylic acids and guanidine—guanidine acrylate and methacrylate—have been synthesized, and the kinetic features of their free-radical polymerization in aqueous solutions have been studied. When polymerization is carried out in organic solvents (methanol, ethanol, or dioxane), the system is heterogeneous over the entire range of monomer concentrations. In aqueous solutions, the reaction systems are homogeneous only at small initial monomer concentrations (less than 1.30 and 0.40 mol/l for guanidine acrylate and methacrylate, respectively; the ammonium persulfate concentration is 5 × 10^?3 mol/l; pH ～ 6.5; 60°C). At higher concentrations, microheterogeneity appears from small conversions (～1%). This phenomenon is associated with the coiling of growing polymer chains owing to associative interactions between guanidine groups occurring in the monomer solution and carboxyl groups of (meth)acrylate polymer units. In aqueous solutions over the entire range of monomer concentrations (0.2–2.5 mol/l), the kinetic orders are the same as in the case of corresponding acrylic acids. The effects of composition of reaction solutions on changes in the initial rate of polymerization and the conformational behavior of the systems under study have been ascertained.     

Molecular weight distributions in radiation-induced polymerization. VII. γ-ray-induced polymerization of “wet” styrene in the solid state

In the present paper kinetic and molecular weight distribution results are reported for the γ-ray-initiated polymerization of styrene in the solid state. “In-source” polymerization over the temperature range ?35°C to ?55°C and post-polymerization at ?35°C have been investigated for “wet” styrene samples (water concentration ≈ 10^?3 mole/l.). An interesting feature of the solid-state polymerization of styrene is the bimodal nature of the molecular weight distribution. On a qualitative basis the results resemble those obtained previously for the polymerization of rigorously dried (“dry”) styrene. However, there are noticeable differences on a quantitative basis resulting from the considerable difference in the water content between wet and dry samples. On the basis of these studies, the kinetic and molecular weight distribution data have been interpreted as being indicative of polymerization occurring simultaneously via free-radical and cationic mechanisms.     

Efficient synthesis of monodisperse,highly crosslinked,and “living” functional polymer microspheres by the ambient temperature iniferter‐induced “living” radical precipitation polymerization

The facile and efficient one‐pot synthesis of monodisperse, highly crosslinked, and “living” functional copolymer microspheres by the ambient temperature iniferter‐induced “living” radical precipitation polymerization (ILRPP) is described for the first time. The simple introduction of iniferter‐induced “living” radical polymerization (ILRP) mechanism into precipitation polymerization system, together with the use of ethanol solvent, allows the direct generation of such uniform functional copolymer microspheres. The polymerization parameters (including monomer loading, iniferter concentration, molar ratio of crosslinker to monovinyl comonomer, and polymerization time and scale) showed much influence on the morphologies of the resulting copolymer microspheres, thus permitting the convenient tailoring of the particle sizes by easily tuning the reaction conditions. In particular, monodisperse poly(4‐vinylpyridine‐co‐ethylene glycol dimethacrylate) microspheres were prepared by the ambient temperature ILRPP even at a high monomer loading of 18 vol %. The general applicability of the ambient temperature ILRPP was confirmed by the preparation of uniform copolymer microspheres with incorporated glycidyl methacrylate. Moreover, the “livingness” of the resulting polymer microspheres was verified by their direct grafting of hydrophilic polymer brushes via surface‐initiated ILRP. Furthermore, a “grafting from” particle growth mechanism was proposed for ILRPP, which is considerably different from the “grafting to” particle growth mechanism in the traditional precipitation polymerization. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem, 2013     

Polymerization of acrylonitrile initiated by a manganese(III) acetate glycerol redox system

The kinetics of polymerization of acrylonitrile(AN) initiated by manganese(III) acetate in the presence of glycerol was investigated in the temperature range of 30–40°C. The effect of varying the concentrations of glycerol, sulfuric acid, acetic acid, metal ion, and monomer on the rate was studied. A suitable reaction scheme and rate expression have been proposed. Termination was mutual and was caused by the combination of two growing polymer radicals.     

60Co-initiated copolymerization of styrene with vinyl acetate

The kinetic behavior of the ⁶⁰Co-initiated copolymerization at 25°C of styrene with vinyl acetate at 1100 and 2000 rad/hr was studied. As in the case of thermal and photochemical copolymerizations of these monomers, the growing chains are particularly rich in styrene units, and the overall rate is affected by a diluent effect due to the vinyl acetate monomer. However, in the case of the radiation copolymerization, this effect is partially counterbalanced by an increase of the initiation rate with the vinyl acetate concentration; the polymerization rate curve shows a maximum at a vinyl acetate molar fraction of 0.25. This effect is due to the very different free radical yields of these two monomers. The experimental results may be understood on the basis of a kinetic scheme which involves an energy transfer process from the excited vinyl acetate molecules to the styrene monomer and a termination reaction of the growing chains by very short styrene radicals when the mixture is rich in vinyl acetate.     

Sequence‐Controlled Polymers with Furan‐Protected Maleimide as a Latent Monomer

Herein, a novel methodology for preparing sequence‐controlled polymers is illustrated by using a latent monomer, furan protected maleimide (FMI). At 110 °C, FMI is deprotected by retro Diels–Alder (rDA) reaction, and the released MI is immediately involved in the cross‐polymerization with styrene (St) to deliver heterosegments. At 40 °C the rDA reaction does not proceed, therefore homo‐poly(styrene) segments are produced. By implementing programmable temperature changes during polymerization of St and FMI, “living” polymers with tailored a sequence are created. A ternary copolymerization produces complex sequences as designed. Alkynyl‐functionalized FMI, used as a latent monomer, leads to the desirable placement of functional groups along the polymer chain. This latent‐monomer‐based strategy opens a new avenue for fabricating sequence‐controlled polymers.     

Part I. On the synthesis and pyrolysis of a tetrafluoroethylene–acrylonitrile graft copolymer

Radiation-induced grafting of acrylonitrile onto films of polytetrafluoroethylene has been studied. Irradiation has been carried out in a ⁶⁰Co gamma source at ?78°C., and the graft polymerization was facilitated by being held at 100°C. for 150 hr. The amount of acrylonitrile grafted per unit surface area apparently increases with the thickness of the film. Grafting is also accompanied by slight swelling. This indicates that the reaction occurs in depth. The relative decrease of the amount of grafted acrylonitrile with thickness of the film, referred to the weight of the film, shows that grafting is controlled by the diffusion of the monomer. The rate of grafting was found to be lower in a material with a higher degree of crystallinity; i.e., grafting occurs faster in the amorphous areas of the polymer. The final yield of graft decreases with the temperature at which the reaction is carried out. This may be explained on the basis of kinetics or by assuming a simultaneous disappearance of free polymer radicals.     

Functionalization of PMMA by a functional “iniferter”: Kinetics of polymerization of MMA using N,N′-diethyl-N,N′-bis(2-hydroxyethyl) thiuram disulfide

α,ω-Dihydroxy-terminated-PMMA was synthesized by the bulk polymerization of methyl methacrylate in the presence of a functional “iniferter,” viz., N,N′-diethyl-N,N′-bis(2-hydroxyethyl)thiuram disulfide (DHTD). The kinetics of the polymerization were studied by determining the polymerization rate as a function of the “iniferter” concentration at 60, 70, 85, and 95°C. Evaluation of the data by a computerized multiple regression analysis led to calculation of the various kinetic parameters and the activation energies of the related phenomena. The maximum observed in the R_p–initiator concentration curve was found to shift to lower initiator concentration as the temperature increased. The formal reaction order with respect to the concentration of the initiator decreased with increasing temperature and concentration of DHTD. The chain transfer constants of DHTD with MMA were calculated from the molecular weights of the resulting polymers. The functionalities of the oligomers were calculated from the elemental analysis of the chain end groups. Thermogravimetric analysis revealed that the polymer chain ends were devoid of unsaturated groups and that the polymer underwent degradation only by random scission.     

Polymerization of acrylonitrile initiated by the redox system 2,2′-thiodiethanol/Ce4+ in aqueous sulfuric acid

The polymerization of acrylonitrile initiated by the redox system 2,2′-thiodiethanol/Ce⁴⁺ in dilute sulfuric acid was investigated in the temperature range of 15–25°C. Oxidation of the substrate in the absence of the monomer has also been studied. The reaction involves the formation of an intermediate complex between the metal ion and the protonated species of the reductant, whose decomposition gives rise to the initiating free radicals. Multual interaction of the growing macroradicals accounts for the termination of polymerization. A suitable kinetic scheme has been proposed and rate and equilibrium constants evaluated.     

Anionic bulk polymerization of α-methylstyrene. Stopping of polymerization due to vitrification and equilibrium in bulk

Anionic living polymerization of α-methylstyrene containing a small amount of THF (less than 10%) was studied at temperatures between ?30°C and 50°C. At any temperature studied, a certain quantity of monomer remained without further polymerization. The effect of temperature and THF content on the final state was completely different in low and high temperature regions; at temperatures lower than ca. 20°C, the final monomer concentration decreased with increasing polymerization temperature and THF content. This is explained by the concept of “stopping of polymerization due to vitrification” of the polymerizing mixture. In fact, the final reaction mixture is really glassy in most cases and the red color of living polymer buried in the glass is discolored only very slowly when exposed to air. Detailed analysis of the results showed that the vitrification stopping holds only approximately. At temperatures higher than ca. 30°C, a normal equilibrium between propagation and depropagation holds, and the final monomer concentration increased with temperature. It is, however, far less than the equilibrium monomer concentration obtained in solution polymerization at the same temperature, and it increased appreciably with the increase in THF content. It is shown that the behavior of the equilibrium for the whole concentration range can be explained satisfactorily by a thermodynamic theory of ternary mixture.     

Kinetics of free‐radical graft polymerization of 1‐vinyl‐2‐pyrrolidone onto silica

The kinetics of aqueous free‐radical graft polymerization of 1‐vinyl‐2‐pyrrolidone onto silica activated with vinyltrimethoxysilane was studied with a mechanistic polymerization model and experimental data for a temperature range of 70–90 °C. The polymerization was initiated with hydrogen peroxide with initial monomer concentrations ranging from 10 to 40 vol %. The kinetic model, which incorporates the hybrid cage–complex initiation mechanism, describes the experimental polymerization data for which the kinetic order, with respect to the monomer concentration, varies from 1 to . Surface chain growth occurs by both monomer addition and homopolymer grafting, although the latter contribution to the total polymer graft yield is less significant. Increasing the initial monomer concentration enhances both surface polymer density and average grafted chain length. Increasing reaction temperature, however, produces a denser surface layer of shorter polymer chains. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 40: 26–42, 2002