Redox isomerisation of allylic alcohols catalysed by water-soluble ruthenium complexes in aqueous systems

The process of catalytic isomerisation of various allylic alcohols (alk-1-en-3-ols) into saturated ketones under mild conditions is reported. The water-soluble Na₄[{RuCl₂(mtppms)₂}₂] complex, previously reported by us as a precursor to very active hydrogenation catalysts was also found an active catalyst of the redox isomerisation of allylic alcohols in aqueous media. The new Na[Ru(CO)Cp(mtppms)₂] as well as Na₄[{RuCl(μ-Cl)(CCCPh₂)(mtppms)₂}₂] and Na₂[RuClCp(mtppms)₂] also showed good to excellent catalytic activities for redox isomerisations in aqueous systems at 50-80 °C under inert atmosphere.     

Homogeneously catalysed isomerisation of allylic alcohols to carbonyl compounds

Isomerisation of allylic alcohols forms an elegant shortcut to carbonyl compounds in a completely atom-economical process that offers several useful applications in natural-product synthesis and in bulk chemical processes. This review focuses on the heart of isomerisation catalysis: the catalyst. Combinations of transition metals (from Group 4 to 10), ligands and reaction conditions are compared with respect to yield, turnovers, rate and selectivity. A selected number of clever solutions to synthetic problems are highlighted, such as the synthesis of enols and enolates, chiral carbonyl compounds and silyl substituted ketones. Furthermore, a general overview of the mechanisms proposed for the isomerisation of allylic alcohols is given while some catalyst systems are singled out to discuss mechanistic research.     

Highly selective 1,3-isomerization of allylic alcohols via rhenium oxo catalysis

Two reaction strategies are developed to promote the highly selective 1,3-isomerization of a variety of allylic alcohols using O3ReOSiPh3 as a catalyst. The first strategy utilizes substrates whose 1,3-regioisomer contains a conjugated alkene, which relies on thermodynamics to obtain high selectivity. The second strategy employs N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)acetamide as an additive to selectively and irreversibly remove the product from the reaction equilibrium and works well for the isomerization of tertiary allylic alcohols into primary allylic alcohols containing trisubstituted alkene components. High stereoselectivity is also observed in the 1,3-isomerization of enantioenriched allylic alcohols.     

Phenyl substituted indenylphosphine ruthenium complexes as catalysts for dehydrogenation of alcohols

Thermal treatment of (1H-inden-3-yl)dicyclohexylphosphinium tetrafluoroborate (1) and (3-mesityl-1H-inden-3-yl)dicyclohexylphosphinium tetrafluoroborate (3) with tBuONa followed by [(η(6)-cymene)RuCl(2))](2) in methanol gave the adduct {(η(6)-cymene)RuCl(2)[(1H-inden-3-yl)PCy(2)]} (6) and {(η(6)-cymene)RuCl(2)[(3-mesityl-1H-inden-3-yl)PCy(2)]} (7), respectively. Thermal treatment of (2-phenyl-1H-inden-3-yl)dicyclohexylphosphinium tetrafluoroborate (4) with tBuONa followed by [(η(6)-cymene)RuCl(2))](2) or RuCl(3)·3H(2)O in methanol gave {Ru[κ(P):(η(6)-2-phenyl-1H-inden-3-yl)PCy(2)]Cl(2)} (8). Whereas (2-mesityl-1H-inden-3-yl)dicyclohexylphosphine (5) reacted with [(η(6)-cymene)RuCl(2))](2) (in toluene) or RuCl(3)·3H(2)O (in ethanol) to afford {Ru[κ(P):(η(6)-2-mesityl-1H-inden-3-yl)PCy(2)]Cl(2)} (9). The molecular structures of complexes 6, 8 and 9 have been determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. In addition, complexes 8 and 9 have been found to catalyze the acceptorless dehydrogenation of alcohols in toluene. 9 displayed high activity and different substrates, including cyclic and linear alcohols, were efficiently oxidized to ketones by using 2.0 mol% of catalyst.     

Development of new iron catalysts for the tandem isomerization-aldol condensation of allylic alcohols

(bda)Fe(CO)₃ and (COT)Fe(CO)₃ are shown to be excellent catalysts for the tandem isomerization-aldol reaction of allylic alcohols with aldehydes and to significantly increase the scope of this aldolization process, especially, in the case of sterically hindered aldehydes.     

An investigation into oxo analogues of molybdenum olefin metathesis complexes as epoxidation catalysts for alkenes

The oxo-imido molybdenum complex 2a is an effective catalyst at low catalyst loadings (0.5 mol % or below) for the epoxidation of a range of alkenes with ^tBuOOH in PhMe at 90 °C. Reactions are complete in less than 4 h and the products are isolated in high yields. The catalytic system is chemoselective for the epoxidation of electron-rich alkenes and allylic alcohols.     

Mild and tunable benzoic acid catalysts for rearrangement reactions of allylic alcohols

An efficient and simple catalytic method for the isomerization of readily prepared allylic alcohols is described. We focus particularly on cyclic examples and the synthesis of unusual enyne and dienols. The benzoic acid catalysts employed are commercially available and very inexpensive and can be tuned for reactivity and substrate sensitivity.     

Allylic alcohols as synthetic enolate equivalents: isomerisation and tandem reactions catalysed by transition metal complexes

Allylic alcohols can be isomerised into carbonyl compounds by transition metal complexes. In the last few years, catalyst design and development have resulted in highly efficient isomerisations under mild reaction conditions, including enantioselective versions. In addition, the isomerisation of allylic alcohols has been combined with C-C bond forming reactions when electrophiles such as aldehydes or imines were present in the reaction mixture. Also, C-F bonds can be formed when electrophilic fluorinating reagents are used. Thus, allylic alcohols can be treated as latent enol(ate)s. In this article, we highlight the latest developments concerning the isomerisation of allylic alcohols into carbonyl compounds, focusing in particular on tandem isomerisation/C-C or C-heteroatom bond formation processes. Significant attention is given to the mechanistic aspects of the reactions.     

Multi-walled carbon nanotube bound nickel Schiff-base complexes as reusable catalysts for oxidation of alcohols

Nickel salen and salophen complexes have been covalently anchored on multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs). The MWNT-supported nickel complexes have been characterized by inductive coupled plasma spectroscopy, FT-IR spectroscopy, UV-Vis spectrophotometry, transmission electron microscopy, and X-ray diffraction. The catalytic performance for the oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols was evaluated using periodic acid as oxidant. Reaction conditions have been optimized for MWNT-supported salen and salophen complexes by considering the effect of parameters such as solvent, reaction time, concentration of catalyst, amount of oxidant, etc. The catalytic activity was higher for supported catalysts than similar homogeneous ones. These supported catalysts were highly stable and reused several times without the loss of catalytic activity.     

Pincer Ru and Os complexes as efficient catalysts for racemization and deuteration of alcohols

The pincer complexes [MX(CNN)(PP)] (M = Ru, Os; X = Cl, OTf; HCNN = 1-(6-arylpyridin-2-yl)methanamine; PP = diphosphine) have proven to efficiently catalyze both racemization and deuteration of alcohols in the presence of a base. Chiral alcohols have been racemized at 30-50 °C using 1 mol% of Ru or Os pincer complexes and 5 mol% of KOtBu in 2-propanol. Primary and secondary alcohols are efficiently deuterated at the α position, with respect to the OH group, using 2-propanol-d(8) as solvent with Ru or Os pincer complexes and KOtBu at 30-50 °C. For secondary alcohols incorporation of deuterium at the β position has also been observed. In 2-propanol-d(8) the pincer complexes catalyze the simultaneous deuteration and racemization of (S)-1-phenylethanol, the two processes being strictly correlated. For both reactions much the same activity has been observed with the Ru and Os complexes. The pincer complexes display a superior activity with respect to the related compounds [MCl(2)(NN)(PP)] (NN = bidentate amine or pyridine ligand). The synthesis of the new complexes [MCl(CNN)(PP)] (M = Ru, 2, 4 and Os, 6, 7; PP = dppb, dppf) and [Ru(OTf)(CNN)(dppb)] (3) is also reported.     

Allylation of N-heterocycles with allylic alcohols employing self-assembling palladium phosphane catalysts

The first palladium catalyst system that allows the direct allylation of indoles with allylic alcohols as substrates with water being the only byproduct is presented. The application of self-assembling ligands based on complementary hydrogen bonding was the key to success.     

Metal complexes as phase transfer catalysts in the synthesis of O-acetylmandelonitrile

The asymmetric synthesis of O-acetylated mandelonitrile derivative was accomplished from PhCHO, KCN, and Ac₂O in a toluene--water system in the presence of transition metal complexes of Schiff"s bases as phase transfer catalysts.     

Highly efficient redox isomerisation of allylic alcohols catalysed by pyrazole-based ruthenium(IV) complexes in water: mechanisms of bifunctional catalysis in water

The catalytic activity of ruthenium(IV) ([Ru(η(3):η(3)-C(10)H(16))Cl(2)L]; C(10)H(16) = 2,7-dimethylocta-2,6-diene-1,8-diyl, L = pyrazole, 3-methylpyrazole, 3,5-dimethylpyrazole, 3-methyl-5-phenylpyrazole, 2-(1H-pyrazol-3-yl)phenol or indazole) and ruthenium(II) complexes ([Ru(η(6)-arene)Cl(2)(3,5-dimethylpyrazole)]; arene = C(6)H(6), p-cymene or C(6)Me(6)) in the redox isomerisation of allylic alcohols into carbonyl compounds in water is reported. The former show much higher catalytic activity than ruthenium(II) complexes. In particular, a variety of allylic alcohols have been quantitatively isomerised by using [Ru(η(3):η(3)-C(10)H(16))Cl(2)(pyrazole)] as a catalyst; the reactions proceeded faster in water than in THF, and in the absence of base. The isomerisations of monosubstituted alcohols take place rapidly (10-60?min, turn-over frequency = 750-3000?h(-1)) and, in some cases, at 35?°C in 60?min. The nature of the aqueous species formed in water by this complex has been analysed by ESI-MS. To analyse how an aqueous medium can influence the mechanism of the bifunctional catalytic process, DFT calculations (B3LYP) including one or two explicit water molecules and using the polarisable continuum model have been carried out and provide a valuable insight into the role of water on the activity of the bifunctional catalyst. Several mechanisms have been considered and imply the formation of aqua complexes and their deprotonated species generated from [Ru(η(3):η(3)-C(10)H(16))Cl(2)(pyrazole)]. Different competitive pathways based on outer-sphere mechanisms, which imply hydrogen-transfer processes, have been analysed. The overall isomerisation implies two hydrogen-transfer steps from the substrate to the catalyst and subsequent transfer back to the substrate. In addition to the conventional Noyori outer-sphere mechanism, which involves the pyrazolide ligand, a new mechanism with a hydroxopyrazole complex as the active species can be at work in water. The possibility of formation of an enol, which isomerises easily to the keto form in water, also contributes to the efficiency in water.     

Metal complexes as color indicators for the determination of acid-base properties of solid catalysts

The Lewis acid-basicity of a solid catalyst was determinated by using solution of Cu(tmen) (acac) (NO₃) and Fe(phen)₂ (CN)₂ as Lewis acid-base indicators.     

(Pi-allyl)palladium complexes bearing diphosphinidenecyclobutene ligands (DPCB): highly active catalysts for direct conversion of allylic alcohols

The (pi-allyl)palladium complex bearing an sp2-hybridized phosphorus ligand (DPCB-OMe: 1,2-bis(4-methoxyphenyl)-3,4-bis[(2,4,6-tri-tert-butylphenyl)phosphinidene]cyclobutene) efficiently catalyzes direct conversion of allylic alcohols in the absence of activating agents of alcohols such as Lewis acids. N-Allylation of aniline proceeds at room temperature to afford monoallylated anilines in 90-97% yields. C-Allylation of active methylene compounds is also successful at 50 degrees C using a catalytic amount of pyridine as a base, giving monoallylation products in 85-95% yields. The catalytic mechanism involving hydrido- and (pi-allyl)palladium intermediates has been proposed on the basis of stoichiometric examinations using model compounds of presumed intermediates.     

Binuclear Fe-complexes as catalysts for the ligand-free regioselective allylic sulfenylation

Binuclear Fe-complexes that are readily prepared by treating Bu(4)N[Fe(CO)(3)(NO)] with an excess of thiol or from Fe-salts under reductive conditions are potent catalysts for the regioselective allylic sulfenylation. Low catalyst loadings of only 0.25 mol% and reaction temperatures of only 40 °C allow for the coupling of functionalized allylic starting materials with functionalized mercaptans in good yield with full retention of the configuration.     

Aminopyridines as acylation catalysts for tertiary alcohols

The acylation of unreactive alcohols with acid anhydrides is greatly facilitated by the addition of a catalytic (0.02–0.1 equivalent) amount of a 4-dialkylaminopyridine. The reaction is faster in nonpolar than in polar solvents and acetyl chloride is not as effective as acetic anhydride. Several pyridine, pyridazine, and quinoline derivatives have been examined as potential acylation catalysts. Of the systems examined, only a few of the 4-substituted pyridines were found to be acylation catalysts, the most effective being 4-pyrrolidinopyridine 4 and 1,1,3,3-tetramethyl-4-(4-pyridyl)guanidine 8. The reaction of t-butanol with an isocyanate is also accelerated by the presence of 4 but not as much as in the case of acylations. The cause of the pronounced effect of these pyridine species in catalyzing acylation reactions seems to be a combination of the increased donor ability of the 4-substituent and the stabilizing effect that this substituent has on an acyl pyridinium intermediate.     

Molybdenum oxo-imido aryloxide complexes: oxo analogues of olefin metathesis catalysts

The novel 16-electron molybdenum oxo-imido bis(aryloxide) complexes [Mo(NtBu)(O)(2,6-Me2C6H3O)2(py)] (1) and [Mo(NtBu)(O)(2,6-iPr2C6H3O)2(py)] (2) have been prepared by the salt elimination reactions of [Mo(NtBu)(O)Cl2(DME)] with the appropriate lithium aryloxide and from the cycloaddition reactions of tert-butyl isocyanate with the appropriate molybdenum dioxo bis(aryloxide) complex [Mo(O)2(OAr)2(py)n]. Complexes 1 and 2 are the first isolable and crystallographically characterized molybdenum oxo-imido aryloxide complexes. The geometry around the metal in complexes 1 and 2 is best described as a distorted trigonal bipyramid, with the imido and pyridine ligands occupying the axial positions and the oxo and aryloxide ligands in the equatorial plane. X-ray and IR data have confirmed that the imido ligand is the dominant pi donor in the complexes, resulting in an Mo-O bond order of less than 2.5. Reaction of [Mo(NtBu)(O)Cl2(DME)] with Li(OCH2tBu) instead gave the novel complex [Mo(NtBu)(OCH2tBu)3Cl(py)] (3).     

Dynamic kinetic resolution of allylic alcohols mediated by ruthenium- and lipase-based catalysts

An enzyme-metal combo reaction has been developed for the dynamic kinetic resolution of allylic alcohols in which racemic substrates are transformed by a lipase and a ruthenium complex in the presence of an acyl donor to allylic acetates of high optical purity in over 80% yield.