Sun exposure and sun protection habits among high-school adolescents in Porto Alegre, Brazil

Adolescents constitute an important audience for photoprotection programs. Sun exposure and sun protection habits acquired during adolescence have a significant impact on skin cancer incidence. We administered a questionnaire to 724 students about ultraviolet radiation effects, opinions about tanning, total time of sun exposure per day, photoprotection and activities in the sun. About 90% were aware of the association between sun exposure and skin cancer, and mass media was the main source of information. However, the great majority believed that tanning improved their appearance, and that it was worth taking the risk. The most prevalent outdoor activity among boys was sports; girls preferred walks and sunbathing. Sun exposure was significantly longer in summer, when 90% of the students went to the beach. About 47% reported sunscreen use in summer and only 3% reported using sunscreen during winter. These results emphasize the need for the promotion of photoprotective habits in our population and the importance of engaging physicians and school teachers in developing campaigns directed at this issue to achieve effective, long-lasting results. Adolescents are aware of the effects of ultraviolet radiation on the skin but campaigns have not successfully changed their sun exposure habits.     

Validation of Sun Exposure Reported Annually Against Interim Self‐report and Daily Sun Diaries

Data on personal sun exposure over a period exceeding the immediate past days or weeks are typically self‐reported in brief questionnaire items. The validity of such self‐reporting of longer term personal sun exposure, for example over a year, including detail on variation across seasons, has not previously been investigated. In a volunteer sample (n = 331) of Australian adults aged 18 years and over, we assessed the 12‐month reliability of sun exposure reported separately for each season, and its accuracy compared to a daily sun diary in the same season. Seasonal time outdoors displayed fair‐to‐good reliability between baseline and end of study (12 months), with responses showing higher agreement at lower levels of time outdoors. There was good agreement for ranking of individuals' time outdoors with the daily sun diary data, although the actual diary time outdoors was typically considerably lower than the self‐reported questionnaire data. Place of residence, education, being a smoker, day of the week (i.e. working day vs nonworking day) and working mainly outdoors were significant predictors of agreement. While participants overestimated their actual time outdoors, the self‐report questionnaire provided a valid ranking of long‐term sun exposure against others in the study that was reliable over time.     

Sun exposure and Protection Behavior of Danish Farm Children: Parental Influence on Their Children

Healthy sun habits acquired in childhood could reduce skin cancer incidence. We examined the sun exposure and protection behavior of an expected high‐exposure group of children, and the association to their parents. Open, prospective cohort study. One hundred and thirty nine participants (40 families) kept daily sun behavior diaries (sun exposure, sunscreen use, sunburns) over a 4‐month summer period (15 985 diary days). The Pigment Protection Factor (PPF), an objective measure of sun exposure, was measured at two body sites, before and after summer. All participants presented data from the same 115 days. Risk behavior (sun exposure of upper body) took place on 9.5 days (boys) and 15.6 days (girls). Sunburn and sunscreen use were infrequent. Boys’ sun exposure resulted in an increased photo protection over the study period of 1.7 SED (upper arm) and 0.8 SED (shoulder) to elicit erythema. Corresponding values for girls were as follows: 0.9 SED (upper arm) and 0.5 SED (shoulder). Boys’ sunscreen use correlated to their mothers’ (r = 0.523, P = 0.02). Girls’ number of risk days (r = 0.552, P = 0.005) and sun exposure (upper arm: r = 0.621, P < 0.001) correlated to their mothers’. The children's sun exposure was substantial. Only mothers influenced children's sun behavior and exposure. This may be of relevance in future sun protection campaigns.     

Sun protection Provided by Regulation School Uniforms in Australian Schools: An Opportunity to Improve Personal Sun protection During Childhood

Childhood sun exposure is linked to excessive pigmented mole development and melanoma risk. Clothing provides a physical barrier, protecting skin from ultraviolet radiation (UVR). Extending sleeves to elbow length and shorts to knee length has been shown to significantly reduce mole acquisition in preschoolers from tropical Queensland. We used publicly available uniform images and guidelines from primary schools in Townsville (latitude 19.25°S, n = 43 schools), Cairns (16.87°S, n = 46) and the Atherton Tablelands (17.26°S, n = 23) in tropical Australia to objectively determine the body surface proportion covered by regulation school uniforms. Uniforms of nongovernment, large (≥800 students), urban, educationally advantaged schools with comprehensive sun protection policies covered more skin than those of government schools (63.2% vs 62.0%; P < 0.001), smaller schools (63.4% vs 62.3%; P = 0.009), rural (62.7% vs 61.9%; P = 0.002) and educationally disadvantaged schools (62.8% vs 62.3%; P < 0.001) with underdeveloped sun protection policies (62.8% vs 62.2%; P = 0.002). Overall, SunSmart and non‐SunSmart school uniforms covered identical body surface proportions (62.4%, P = 0.084). Although wearing regulation school uniforms is mandatory at most Australian primary schools, this opportunity to improve children's sun protection is largely overlooked. Recent evidence suggests that even encouraging minor alterations to school uniforms (e.g. slightly longer sleeves/dresses/skirts/shorts) to increase skin coverage may reduce mole acquisition and melanoma risk, especially in high‐risk populations.     

A Comparison of Solar Ultraviolet Radiation Exposure in Urban Canyons in Venice,Italy and Johannesburg,South Africa

Urban environments can have high-risk spaces that can provide excess personal sun exposure, such as urban or street canyons, and the spaces between buildings, among others. In these urban spaces, sun exposure can be high or low depending on several factors. Polysulphone film (PSF) was used to assess possible daily solar ultraviolet radiation (UVR) exposure in urban canyons in Venice, Italy and, for the first time in Africa, in Johannesburg, South Africa. The photodegradation of PSF upon solar exposure was monitored at a wavelength of 330 nm by ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry, and the resultant change was converted to standard erythemal dose (SED) units (1 SED = 100 J m⁻²). Mean daily ambient solar UVR exposure measured for Venice and Johannesburg ranged between 20–28 SED and 33–43 SED, respectively. Canyon-located PSF exposures were lower in Venice (1–9 SED) than those in Johannesburg (9–39 SED), depending mainly on the sky view factor and orientation to the sun. There was large variation in solar UVR exposure levels in different urban canyons. These preliminary results should be bolstered with additional studies for a better understanding of excess personal exposure risk in urban areas, especially in Africa.     

Association of Increased Sun Exposure Over the Life‐course with a Reduced Risk of Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis

Cutaneous sun exposure is an important determinant of circulating vitamin D. Both sun exposure and vitamin D have been inversely associated with risk of autoimmune disease. In juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA), low circulating vitamin D appears common, but disease‐related behavioral changes may have influenced sun exposure. We therefore aimed to determine whether predisease sun exposure is associated with JIA. Using validated questionnaires, we retrospectively measured sun exposure for 202 Caucasian JIA case–control pairs born in Victoria Australia, matched for birth year and time of recruitment. Measures included maternal sun exposure at 12 weeks of pregnancy and child sun exposure across the life‐course prediagnosis. We converted exposure to UVR dose and looked for case–control differences using logistic regression, adjusting for potential confounders. Higher cumulative prediagnosis UVR exposure was associated with reduced risk of JIA, with a clear dose–response relationship (trend P = 0.04). UVR exposure at 12 weeks of pregnancy was similarly inversely associated with JIA (trend P = 0.011). Associations were robust to sensitivity analyses for prediagnosis behavioral changes, disease duration and knowledge of the hypothesis. Our data indicate that lower UVR exposure may increase JIA risk. This may be through decreased circulating vitamin D, but prospective studies are required to confirm this.     

Personal Sun Exposure and Serum 25‐hydroxy Vitamin D Concentrations

Solar ultraviolet‐B radiation (UVB) is essential for epidermal vitamin D production. We aimed to quantitate the relationship between personal solar UV exposure and serum 25hydroxy vitamin D (25[OH]D) concentration. Blood was collected for 25(OH)D analysis in 207 South Australian adults aged 27–61 years. At the time of blood collection, each participant completed a questionnaire, which included a calendar for recall of sun exposure in the preceding 16 weeks. We examined the association between solar UV exposure and serum 25(OH)D graphically from smoothed scatter plots, and modeled it using multiple linear regression, with age, sex and body mass index as covariates. Estimated erythemal solar UV exposure in the 6 weeks before blood collection best predicted serum 25(OH)D concentrations. Serum 25(OH)D rose with increasing personal solar UV exposure to a maximum of about 89 nmol L^?1 at an estimated mean weekly solar erythemal UV exposure of about 1230 mJ cm^?2. The maximum was the same after accounting for clothing coverage and was reached at an estimated whole body equivalent exposure to ambient UV of ca 700 mJ cm^?2. These results suggest that an average maximum serum 25(OH)D of ca 89 nmol L^?1 is achieved from sun exposure in a healthy Australian adult population.     

Drivers for Sun Protection in Black South Africans

Sun protection behavior studies are almost exclusively carried out in populations with fair skin for the obvious reason that people with unpigmented skin are more susceptible to the health impacts of excess solar ultraviolet radiation exposure. In a dataset of 1271 Black South Africans, we analyzed factors related to sun protection applied when spending time outdoors including awareness of skin cancer, gender, age and Living Standards Measure (LSM) where 1–4 equate to the lowest, 5–7 intermediate and 8–10 the highest LSM status. The most important driver for Black South Africans to use sun protection was whether they were aware of skin cancer (OR: 2.6 for those who were aware versus those who were not, P < 0.0001). Sunscreen was preferred by respondents in LSM 8-10 whereas people in the lowest group (LSM 1-4) favored shade, umbrellas and hats. One in two respondents claimed to use some form of sun protection, which appears to be higher than deeply pigmented populations in other countries.     

Assessment of Biologically Effective Solar Ultraviolet Exposures for Court Staff and Competitors During a Major Australian Tennis Tournament

Sport is an integral and enduring part of many societies, such as Australia. Participation in outdoor sports, such as tennis, comes with a very real risk of dangerous solar ultraviolet exposure which can result in erythema (sunburn), serious conditions such as skin cancer, including melanoma, and eye conditions such as cataracts and pterygium. This study remotely assesses the effective ultraviolet exposures in response to the increased sun safety awareness at a major summertime tennis tournament in Australia. The assessment only uses publicly accessible data and information. It was found that tournament organizers have effectively adopted sun‐safe protocols into the uniform policy that the court officials (judges and ball kids) are mandated to follow. The combination of sun‐participant geometry and the photoprotection provided by uniforms significantly reduced the ambient ultraviolet exposure, which was recorded to be as high as 9.9 SED h^?1, to just 1.0 and 0.5 SED h^?1 for ball kids and judges, respectively, compared to up to 2.0 SED h^?1 for players. Even though caution is needed against complacency with sun safety, with the need for the court officials and the players to still apply sunscreen, the court officials provided persistent visual role modeling of sun‐safe behaviors.     

Sun Exposure over a Lifetime in Australian Adults from Latitudinally Diverse Regions

Spatio‐temporal patterns in sun exposure underlie variations in skin cancer incidence and vitamin D deficiency, indicate effectiveness of sun protection programs and provide insights into future health risks. From 558 adults across four regions of Australia (Brisbane (27°S), Newcastle (33°S), Geelong and the Western Districts of Victoria (37°S) and Tasmania (43°S)), we collected: self‐report data on time‐in‐the‐sun from age 6 years; natural skin color and ethnicity; silicone skin casts (for cumulative skin damage); and serum for vitamin D status. Ambient ultraviolet radiation (UVR) at the location of residence, with time‐in‐the‐sun, was used to calculate a “UVR dose” for each year of life. Individuals maintained their ranking compared to their peers for time‐in‐the‐sun in summer compared to winter and across ages (Spearman rho 0.24–0.84, all P < 0.001). Time‐in‐the‐sun decreased with age in all birth cohorts, and over calendar time. Summer time‐in‐the‐sun increased with increasing latitude (P < 0.001). Seasonal variation in vitamin D status had greater amplitude and vitamin D deficiency increased with increasing latitude. Temporal patterns are consistent with effectiveness of sun protection programs. Higher relative time‐in‐the‐sun persists from childhood through adulthood. Lower summer time‐in‐the‐sun in the warmest location may have implications for predictions of UVR‐related health risks of climate change.     

Seasonal Minimum and Maximum Solar Ultraviolet Exposure Measurements of Classroom Teachers Residing in Tropical North Queensland,Australia

The risk of keratinocyte skin cancer, malignant melanoma and ultraviolet radiation (UVR)‐induced eye disease is disproportionately higher in Australia and New Zealand compared to equivalent northern hemisphere latitudes. While many teachers are aware of the importance of reinforcing sun safety messages to students, many may not be aware of the considerable personal exposure risk while performing outdoor duties in locations experiencing high to extreme ambient UVR year‐round. Personal erythemally effective exposure of classroom teachers in tropical Townsville (19.3°S) was measured to establish seasonal extremes in exposure behavior. Mean daily personal exposure was higher in winter (91.2 J m^‐2, 0.91 Standard Erythema Dose [SED]) than summer (63.3 J m^?2, 0.63 SED). The range of exposures represents personal exposures that approximate current national guidelines for Australian workers at the study latitude of approximately 1.2 SED (30 J m^?2 effective to the International Commission on Non‐Ionizing Radiation Protection). Similar proportions of teachers spent more than 1 h outdoors per day in winter (28.6%) and summer (23.6%) as part of their teaching duties with seasonal differences having little effect on the time of exposure. Personal exposures for teachers peaked during both seasons near school meal break times at 11:00 am and 1:00 pm, respectively.     

Effect of Protective Measures on Eye Exposure to Solar Ultraviolet Radiation

In this study, ocular biologically effective exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation (UVBE) is investigated with six kinds of sun protective measures (spectacle lenses, sunglasses, cap, bonnet, straw hat and under parasol). Ocular UV exposure measurements were performed on manikins during the summer period in Shenyang city (41.64° N, 123.50° E, 66 m a.s.l.), China. The measurements include the ocular UV exposure of an unprotected eye and the ambient UV as a control concurrently. Based on the relative spectral weighting factors of the International Commission on Non‐Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), the ocular biologically effective UV is calculated and compared with the 8‐h exposure limits of ICNIRP (30 J m^?2). The UV index (UVI) of the measurement days is 0–8, and the 8‐h (8:00–16:00 China Standard Time, CST) cumulated UVBE of the unprotected eye is 452.0 J m^?2. The 8‐h cumulated UVBE of the eye with spectacle lenses, sunglasses, cap, bonnet, straw hat and under parasol are 364.2, 69.1, 51.4, 49.0, 56.8 and 110.2 J m^?2, respectively. Importantly, it should be noted that the eye could be exposed to risk despite protective measures. The 8‐h cumulated UVBE of the eye with protection is ca 1.6–15.1 times the exposure limit, respectively. As indicated in the present study, during summer months, high exposure to the sun for more than 30 min without eye protection and more than 1 h with eye protection is not advisable. The protection measures could effectively reduce the UVBE reaching the eye, yet there is still a high degree of risk when compared with the ICNIRP 8‐h exposure limits.     

Responses of a marine red tide alga Skeletonema costatum (Bacillariophyceae) to long-term UV radiation exposures

UV radiation (280–400 nm) is known to affect phytoplankton in negative, neutral and positive ways depending on the species or levels of irradiation energy. However, little has been documented on how photosynthetic physiology and growth of red tide alga respond to UVR in a long-term period. We exposed the cells of the marine red tide diatom Skeletonema costatum for 6 days to simulated solar radiations with UV-A (320–400 nm) or UV-A + UV-B (295–400 nm) and examined their changes in photosynthesis and growth. Presence of UV-B continuously reduced the effective photosynthetic quantum yield of PSII, and resulted in complete growth inhibition and death of cells. When UV-B or UV-B + UV-A was screened off, the growth rate decreased initially but regained thereafter. UV-absorbing compounds and carotenoids increased in response to the exposures with UVR. However, mechanisms for photoprotection associated with the increased carotenoids or UV-absorbing compounds were not adequate under the continuous exposure to a constant level of UV-B (0.09 W m^?2, DNA-weighted). In contrast, under solar radiation screened off UV-B, the photoprotection was first accomplished by an initial increase of carotenoids and a later increase in UV-absorbing compounds. The overall response of this red tide alga to prolonged UV exposures indicates that S. costatum is a UV-B-sensitive species and increased UV-B irradiance would influence the formation of its blooms.     

Oculocutaneous Albinism in Sub‐Saharan Africa: Adverse Sun‐Associated Health Effects and Photoprotection

Oculocutaneous albinism (OCA) is a genetically inherited autosomal recessive condition. Individuals with OCA lack melanin and therefore are susceptible to the harmful effects of solar ultraviolet radiation, including extreme sun sensitivity, photophobia and skin cancer. OCA is a grave public health issue in sub‐Saharan Africa with a prevalence as high as 1 in 1000 in some tribes. This article considers the characteristics and prevalence of OCA in sub‐Saharan African countries. Sun‐induced adverse health effects in the skin and eyes of OCA individuals are reviewed. Sun exposure behavior and the use of photoprotection for the skin and eyes are discussed to highlight the major challenges experienced by these at‐risk individuals and how these might be best resolved.     

The epidemiology of UV induced skin cancer.

There is persuasive evidence that each of the three main types of skin cancer, basal cell carcinoma (BCC), squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and melanoma, is caused by sun exposure. The incidence rate of each is higher in fairer skinned, sun-sensitive rather than darker skinned, less sun-sensitive people; risk increases with increasing ambient solar radiation; the highest densities are on the most sun exposed parts of the body and the lowest on the least exposed; and they are associated in individuals with total (mainly SCC), occupational (mainly SCC) and non-occupational or recreational sun exposure (mainly melanoma and BCC) and a history of sunburn and presence of benign sun damage in the skin. That UV radiation specifically causes these skin cancers depends on indirect inferences from the action spectrum of solar radiation for skin cancer from studies in animals and the action spectrum for dipyrimidine dimers and evidence that presumed causative mutations for skin cancer arise most commonly at dipyrimidine sites. Sun protection is essential if skin cancer incidence is to be reduced. The epidemiological data suggest that in implementing sun protection an increase in intermittency of exposure should be avoided, that sun protection will have the greatest impact if achieved as early as possible in life and that it will probably have an impact later in life, especially in those who had high childhood exposure to solar radiation.     

Effect of A Sun Protection Intervention on the Immune Response to Measles Booster Vaccination in Infants in Rural South Africa

The incidence of many serious childhood infections can be reduced by vaccination. High sun exposure at the time of vaccination has been associated with a reduced antigen‐specific immune response. We hypothesized that providing sun protection advice and equipment to mothers of children who were waiting to be vaccinated would result in a more robust immunization response. We conducted a pilot study in 2015/2016 (data analyzed in 2017–2018) among 98 Black African children (~18 months of age) receiving the booster measles vaccination at two clinics in South Africa. Clinics were randomized to receive (or not) sun protection advice and equipment. We recorded demographic information on children and mothers and data on the child's usual sun exposure. At approximately 4 weeks’ postmeasles vaccination, we measured measles immunoglobulin G levels in children. All children with blood results (n = 87, 89%) across both groups had antibody titers higher than 200 mIU mL^?1 which was considered the protective antibody concentration. There was no statistically significant difference in titers between groups: geometric difference in mean titers 1.13 mIU mL^?1 (95% CI 0.85, 1.51; P = 0.39) and 1.38 mIU mL^?1 (95% CI 0.90, 2.11, P = 0.14) for unadjusted and adjusted analyses, respectively. This study demonstrated that a sun protection intervention study could be performed in a developing‐world pediatric vaccination setting. Although the sun protection intervention around the time of vaccination was not associated with a higher antibody level, given the potential importance of such an effect, a larger study should be considered.     

Kinetics of Photosynthetic Response to Ultraviolet and Photosynthetically Active Radiation in Synechococcus WH8102 (CYANOBACTERIA)

The picoplanktonic cyanobacteria, Synechococcus spp., (Nägeli) are important contributors to global ocean primary production that can be stressed by solar radiation, both in the photosynthetically active (PAR) and ultraviolet (UV) range. We studied the responses of PSII quantum yield (active fluorescence), carbon fixation (¹⁴C assimilation) and oxygen evolution (membrane inlet mass spectrometry) in Synechococcus WH8102 under moderate UV and PAR. PSII quantum yield decreased during exposure to moderate UV and UV+PAR, with response to the latter being faster (6.4 versus 2.8 min, respectively). Repair processes were also faster when UV+PAR exposure was followed by moderate PAR (1.68 min response time) than when UV was followed by very low PAR (10.5 min response time). For the UV+PAR treatment, the initial decrease in quantum yield was followed by a 50% increase (“rebound”) after 7 min exposure, showing an apparent photoprotection induction. While oxygen uptake increased with PAR, it did not change under UV, suggesting that this oxygen‐dependent mechanism of photoprotection, which may be acting as an electron sink, is not an important strategy against UV. We used propyl gallate, an antioxidant, to test for plastid terminal oxidase (ptox) or ptox‐like enzymes activity, but it caused nonspecific and toxic effects on Synechococcus WH8102.     

Sun beds and cod liver oil as vitamin D sources

The objective of this study was to (1) to determine the contribution of moderate sun bed exposure to serum 25(OH)D(3) levels; (2) to estimate the decay time of a high 25(OH)D(3) level obtained by sun bed exposure; and (3) to evaluate if the recommended ingestion of vitamin D is sufficient to maintain the 25(OH)D(3) concentration obtained by sun bed exposure. Ten volunteers (20-35 y.o.), skin type I and II, living in Olso, Norway were whole body exposed twice per week to the radiation of a commercial and approved sun bed (Life Sun S 100 W, Wolff System), starting with 0.5 MED (minimal erythema dose) and escalating to up to 1 MED per exposure for 4 weeks. After that, half of the volunteers were given a daily supplement of 200 IU vitamin D in the form of cod liver oil capsules, while the other half of the persons received no supplements. Erythema did not occur at any time and a slight pigmentation was seen in most of the volunteers after the sun bed exposures. Serum level of 25(OH)D(3) increased by about 40% on the average. The initial serum 25(OH)D(3) level was different among the volunteers (40-100 nmol/L). Within eight weeks after the last exposure the 25(OH)D(3) level decreased to the initial value in all volunteers irrespective of vitamin D supplementation or not.     

Long-wavelength Ultraviolet A1 and Visible Light Photoprotection: A Multimodality Assessment of Dose and Response

Human skin is exposed to visible light (VL; 400–700 nm) and long-wavelength ultraviolet A1 (UVA1) radiation (370–400 nm) after the application of organic broad-spectrum sunscreens. The biologic effects of these wavelengths have been demonstrated; however, a dose–response has not been investigated. Ten subjects with Fitzpatrick skin phototype IV-VI were enrolled. Subjects were irradiated with 2 light sources (80–480 J cm⁻²): one comprising VL with less than 0.5% UVA1 (VL+UVA1) and the other pure VL. Skin responses were evaluated for 2 weeks using clinical and spectroscopic assessments. 4-mm punch biopsies were obtained from nonirradiated skin and sites irradiated with 480 J cm⁻² of VL+UVA1 and pure VL 24 h after irradiation. Clinical and spectroscopic assessments demonstrated a robust response at VL+UVA1 sites compared with pure VL. Histology findings demonstrated a statistically significant increase in the marker of inflammation (P < 0.05) and proliferation (P < 0.05) at the irradiated sites compared with nonirradiated control. Threshold doses of VL+UVA1 resulting in biologic responses were calculated. Results indicate that approximately 2 h of sun exposure, which equates to VL+UVA1 dose (~400 J cm⁻²), is capable of inducing inflammation, immediate erythema and delayed tanning. These findings reinforce the need of photoprotection beyond the UV range.     

Effective Photoprotection of Human Skin against Infrared A Radiation by Topically Applied Antioxidants: Results from a Vehicle Controlled,Double‐Blind,Randomized Study

Infrared A radiation (IRA) from solar sunlight contributes to photoaging of human skin, e.g. by upregulating MMP‐1 expression in dermal fibroblasts, indicating the need for photoprotection of human skin against IRA. Up to now, however, there has been no controlled study to show that effective protection of human skin against IRA radiation is possible. Here, we have conducted a randomized, controlled, double‐blinded prospective study in 30 healthy volunteers to assess the capacity of an SPF 30 sunscreen versus the same sunscreen supplemented with an antioxidant cocktail containing grape seed extract, vitamin E, ubiquinone and vitamin C to protect human skin against IRA radiation‐induced MMP‐1 upregulation. As expected, exposure to IRA radiation significantly upregulated MMP‐1 expression, as compared to unirradiated skin, and this response was significantly reduced, if the SPF30 sunscreen plus the antioxidant cocktail had been applied prior to IRA radiation. In contrast, treatment of human skin with the SPF30 sunscreen alone did not provide significant protection. These results indicate that topically applied antioxidants effectively protect human skin against IRA radiation and that regular sunscreens need to be supplemented with specific antioxidants in order to achieve IRA photoprotection.