A review of silver nanoparticles in food packaging technologies: Regulation,methods, properties,migration, and future challenges

The development of antimicrobial food packaging is needed for food preservation and quality maintenance. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have been widely used as an antimicrobial agent in food packaging technologies. However, the risks associated with their potential migration into foods are a major concern. This paper comprehensively reviews the use of AgNPs in food packaging technologies. The application of AgNPs in food packaging technologies has been regulated by the United States Food and Drug Administration and the European Food Safety Authority. The addition of AgNPs into food packaging can improve their barrier, mechanical, and antibacterial properties, as well as maintain the quality of foods. Migration of AgNPs from food packaging into foods is still a concern as it has implications for human health associated with their toxicity properties. A study on the toxicological properties of AgNPs released from food packaging needs to be carried out intensively to ensure their safety before being widely implemented. Moreover, comprehensive economic evaluation to implement AgNPs in food packaging is needed as such a study is missing in the literature.     

纺织品与食品包装材料中烷基酚及双酚A迁移量的液相色谱-串联质谱分析

建立了纺织品与食品包装材料中烷基酚及双酚A迁移量的液相色谱-串联质谱分析方法.纺织品和食品包装材料浸泡液经Supelclean Envi-Carb石墨化碳黑固相萃取柱净化,以Waters XBridge C_(18)(150 mm×2.1 mm,3.5 μm)色谱柱分离后,进行LC-MS/MS多反应监测模式下的定性及定量分析.烷基酚和双酚A在纺织品模拟汗液、食品模拟物介质中特定迁移量的定量下限分别为2、4 μg/kg.在低、中、高3个添加水平下,测得纺织品样品的回收率为83%～91%,相对标准偏差为4.1%～9.0%;食品包装材料样品的回收率为82%～94%,相对标准偏差为3.9%～8.7%.     

Analytical procedure for the determination of Ethyl Lauroyl Arginate (LAE) to assess the kinetics and specific migration from a new antimicrobial active food packaging

Ethyl Lauroyl Arginate (LAE) is a cationic tensoactive compound, soluble in water, with a wide activity spectrum against moulds and bacteria. LAE has been incorporated as antimicrobial agent into packaging materials for food contact and these materials require to comply with the specific migration criteria. In this paper, one analytical procedure has been developed and optimized for the analysis of LAE in food simulants after the migrations tests. It consists of the formation of an ionic pair between LAE and the inorganic complex Co(SCN)₄²⁻ in aqueous solution, followed by a liquid–liquid extraction in a suitable organic solvent and further UV–Vis absorbance measurement. In order to evaluate possible interferences, the ionic pair has been also analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography with UV–Vis detection. Both procedures provided similar analytical characteristics, with linear ranges from 1.10 to 25.00 mg kg⁻¹, linearity higher than 0.9886, limits of detection and quantification of 0.33 and 1.10 mg kg⁻¹, respectively, accuracy better than 1% as relative error and precision better than 3.6% expressed as RSD. Optimization of analytical techniques, thermal and chemical stability of LAE, as well as migration kinetics of LAE from experimental active packaging are reported and discussed.     

Determination of primary aromatic amines in water food simulant using solid-phase analytical derivatization followed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry

Solid phase analytical derivatization with trifluoroacetic anhydride has been introduced as sample preparation for the determination of primary aromatic amines in water by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. Water was used as a food simulant for testing migration from laminated flexible food packaging materials. The method was evaluated for 8 primary aromatic amines in 200 ml water samples, which resulted in detection limits in the 0.1-0.4 microg/l range, relative standard deviations in the 4-17% range and acceptable linearity (R2 = 0.997-1.000). Detectable levels of 2,4-diaminotoluene, 2,6-diaminotoluene and 4,4'-methylenedianiline were found in water food simulant from some of the investigated food packaging materials.     

Determination of Dihydroxybenzenes in Plastic Food Packaging Materials and in Food Simulating Liquids Using Capillary Electrophoresis

A capillary electrophoresis method has been developed to determine 1,2-dihydroxybenzene and 1,3-dihydroxybenzene in the food simulants distilled water, 3% acetic acid, 15% ethanol, and olive oil. Both substances, used as monomers and additives to make food packaging plastics, could be analyzed within 15 min. The 1,4-dihydroxybenzene isomer was unretained and eluted with the electroosmotic flow, and so the CE method can give only a semi-quantitative estimate of this isomer if it is present as a migrant. The analytical recovery for the 1,2- and 1,3-isomers from spiked simulants was good at 87% to 98% except for 1,2-dihydroxybenzene which could only be recovered to the extent of 58% from olive oil. Calibration graphs were linear and the limit of detection for each substance was 0.6 mg/kg, which is well below migration limits for these substances. It is concluded that CE offers a rapid and reliable analysis for the control of migration from plastics intended for food contact which employ 1,2-dihydroxybenzene or 1,3-dihydroxybenzene during manufacture, and offers a screening method for 1,4-dihydroxybenzene migration.     

Determination of antioxidant migration levels from low-density polyethylene films into food simulants

An analytical method for the determination of specific migration levels of phenolic antioxidants from low-density polyethylene (LDPE) into food simulant has been developed. The screening and response surface experimental designs to optimize the liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) of these antioxidants have been tested and the analyses have been carried out by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with ultraviolet diode-array detector. The procedure developed has been applied to specific migration tests in different commercial LDPE films. The considered antioxidants have not been found upper the legislation limits although Ethanox 330 and Irgafos 168 have been found at trace level.     

纸基食品接触材料中4-肉桂苯酚和水杨酸对叔丁基苯酯向干性食品模拟物TenaxTA的迁移

以纸基食品接触材料中的4-肉桂苯酚(CP)和水杨酸对叔丁基苯酯(TBS)为模拟迁移物,对其向干性食品模拟物Tenax TA中的迁移规律采用超高效液相色谱结合荧光检测(UPLC-FLR)方法进行了研究。在不同温度下对CP和TBS的迁移动力学进行了考察,并对其在封闭环境和敞开环境下的迁移率进行对比研究。通过设计不同质量的Tenax TA接触直径为3.5 cm圆片样品的迁移试验,探索了迁移试验中合适的模拟物质量/接触材料面积比条件。系列试验结果表明,迁移物迁移时间越长,迁移温度越高,相应的迁移率就越高;在高的迁移温度下,迁移物在Tenax TA上的解吸会导致迁移率的下降;在封闭条件下CP和TBS的迁移率要高于敞开条件下的迁移率;迁移试验中,4.16 g/dm²的模拟物质量/接触材料面积比是利用干性食品模拟物进行食品接触材料暴露评估的合适的迁移试验条件。密闭条件下市售的8种食品接触材料干性食品模拟物迁移实验研究表明,TBS存在于用于包装坚果类食品的包装纸中,含量为15.54 mg/kg。     

Radioanalytische verfahren zur bestimmung des übertritts von packstoffbestandteilen in nahrungsmittel

The quantitative determination of the transfer of substances in the system packaging material/foodstuff is essential for the protection of the consumer and with respect to food regulations. The analytical difficulties occurring can be overcome by using food simulants and radio indicators. With the help of the radio tracer techniques described it is possible to determine the migration of an individual component of the packaging material into liquid and solid foodstuffs or their simulants. The methods show a high detection sensitivity; other substances do not interfere. This is accomplished by incorporating a radio indicator with the same chemical structure as the packaging-material component under consideration into test films or test sheets under conditions actually encountered in practice. The radio indicator must be evenly distributed in the test material. Then, parts of the radioactive test films or sheets are brought in one- or two-sided contact with the foodstuffs or their simulants using newly developed extraction and migration cells. The extracted or migrated amounts of the packaging material component are calculated from the radioactivities migrated into the contact media under the test conditions given. As an example for the application of these radio tracer techniques, investigations into the migration behaviour of the organotin stabilizer di-n-octyltin-2-ethyl-hexyl-dithioglycolate in the system rigid PVC/edible fat or test fat resp. are described. For the determination of the total components migrating from a packaging material into foodstuffs, a radio tracer method was developed making use of a¹⁴C-labelled standard triglyceride mixture—the fat simulant HB 307—¹⁴C: therefore, the sample of the packaging material is weighed before and after storage in the fat simulant HB 307—¹⁴C and the content of simulant in the stored sample is determined radioanalytically. The so-called global migrate equals the difference in weight of the sample of packaging material before and after storage in the simulant, provided, the amount of simulant absorbed by the test specimen has been subtracted previously from the weight of the stored sample. The efficiency of this method is demonstrated by determinations of the global migrates of polyvinyl chloride films containing different amounts of plasticizers and the dependence of the mean error of the single determination on the amount of global migrate is discussed.      

Direct determination of carnosic acid in a new active packaging based on natural extract of rosemary

A new antioxidant film is being developed that incorporates a natural extract of rosemary and is intended for contact with food. The rosemary extract has been screened and carnosic acid and carnosol have been determined as the major antioxidant components (6.96% and 0.88%, respectively) that are responsible for the antioxidant properties of the whole extract. Thus, a fast method for the direct determination of carnosic acid in the packaging material, in order to evaluate the antioxidant capacity of the new active plastic, has been developed and optimized. The method consists of extraction from the plastic with methanol, followed by anion exchange solid-phase extraction and final analysis by UPLC–MS. Using this process, the recovery of carnosic acid is about 99%. The complete analytical performance of the method developed here is also assessed. The analytical features of the method, such as the relative standard deviation, reproducibility, repeatability, linear range, and detection and quantification limits, are shown. This method can be subsequently modified to monitor other active components in different packages, and it constitutes a crucial step forward in research into new and improved commercial antioxidant packages.     

MALDI-MS and colorimetric analysis of diisocyanate and polyol migrants from model polyurethane adhesives used in food packaging

The identification of the migrants, into food simulants, from a series of polyurethane adhesives used in the manufacture of plastic film laminates for use in common food packaging is described. Commercial materials, based on four different model adhesive systems, were prepared by an industrial collaborator. The MALDI-MS fingerprint patterns of the three polyether and one polyester polyol components of these adhesives were obtained for reference purposes. The decrease in the level of diisocyanate as a migrant versus time after lamination was confirmed by colorimetric measurements. The migration of the standard polyol samples through polyethylene pouches into water at 70 degrees C has been demonstrated and also the attenuation effect for different polyols. Cured laminates in the form of pouches were used to carry out the migration experiments into distilled water, inside the pouch, at 70 degrees C over a period of 2 h. Comparison of the migration results from the food packaging laminates with those from the polyethylene film confirmed the migration of unreacted polyol components for the polyether-based systems. Cyclic oligomers from the polyol starting materials were identified as the migrants from the polyester-based adhesive.     

Evaluation of the migration of UV-ink photoinitiators from polyethylene food packaging by supercritical fluid chromatography combined with photodiode array detector and tandem mass spectrometry

UV-ink photoinitiators (PIs), which are used to initiate polymerization reaction for the curing of inks and lacquers, have become a kind of contaminant residues in printing plastic food packaging. The residual PIs in packaging may pose a potential threat to customers. In this work, migration behaviors of 13 PIs from a polyethylene (PE) packaging to food simulants according to regulation EU No 10/2011 were studied by supercritical fluid chromatography combined with photodiode array detector and tandem mass spectrometry (SFC-PDA-MS/MS). The method simultaneously analyzed 13 PIs within 4.5 min and was sensitively with low limits of detection of 0.02–2.16 μg/L, which could meet high throughput analysis for control the quality of food packaging. The migration results revealed that Irgacure 819, Darocure 1173 and TPO, which had low migration rates, should be preferably selected by plastic food packaging manufacture for food safety.     

食品包装材料上油墨中残留烷基苯成分分析及其迁移性的GC-MS研究

建立了一种食品包装材料上多色油墨中残留烷基苯成分的提取和气相色谱-质谱联用(GC-MS)分析方法. 采用选择离子检测(SIM)模式, 以内标定量法对某些食品包装材料上多色油墨中烷基苯残留量进行了准确定量分析. 对油墨中残留烷基苯向食品中迁移的初步研究结果表明, 包装材料上油墨中的苯及苯系物等有害物质可能透过薄膜进入食品而造成污染.     

Assessment of specific migration to aqueous simulants of a new active food packaging containing essential oils by means of an automatic multiple dynamic hollow fibre liquid phase microextraction system

The determination of specific migration in the three aqueous food simulants (water, 3% acetic acid and 10% ethanol) from experimental active packaging polypropylene-based films containing natural essential oils as active agents has been carried out for the first time by a two-phase hollow fibre liquid phase microextraction (HFLPME). Due to the high number of variables involved, an experimental design has been applied. High throughput, with six samples running simultaneously in a highly automated system working in dynamic extraction mode, has been achieved. The main analytical characteristics are detection limits as low as 0.01 μg kg⁻¹, linearity higher than 0.99 for almost 5 magnitude orders, average precision below 16% as RSD and concentration factors ranging from 4 to 189. Migration of 43 compounds including terpenes, alkanes, plastic additives and degradation compounds is reported. According to the results obtained and European legislation, the packaging prototypes tested could be safely marketed.     

Recent progress in biodegradable polymers and nanocomposite-based packaging materials for sustainable environment

Plastic-based materials are frequently used in packaging and can be seen universally in both the developed and developing societies. At present, most of the currently used food packaging materials are nondegradable and are creating serious environmental problems. New technologies are being explored and developed to study the complex interaction between the food packaging materials and food. For example, nanocomposite of cellulose constitutes environmentally friendly packaging, which is easily recycled by combustion and requires low power consumption in production. There are several such biodegradable materials which are available at a low price, have good mechanical properties and allow disposal in the soil. This is advantageous because biological degradation produces only carbon dioxide, water, and inorganic compounds to name a few. It has also been discovered that biodegradable plastics made of such materials can be disposed of together with organic waste. The widespread use of biopolymers in the place of standard plastics would help to reduce the weight of waste. Therefore, biodegradable materials take part in the natural cycle “from nature to nature” and play an important role for environmental sustainability. So, in this article, we briefly summarize the different characteristic of biodegradable polymers being used in food packaging applications.     

The validation of a method for determining the migration of trace elements from food packaging materials into food

A new radiotracer method has been developed to measure the migration of trace elements from food contact packaging into four standard food simulants; acetic acid, ethanol, olive oil, deionised water. A sample of material is irradiated in a thermal neutron flux of 10¹⁶n·m^–2·s^–1 to activate the trace elements and produce a range of radionuclides. The sample is then placed in the food simulant and the migration of the radionuclides is monitored by performing -ray spectrometry on a sample of the simulant. Any radionuclides measured must be due entirely to the migration of the elements present in the plastic, since the simulant itself is not radioactive. Preliminary studies have shown that detection limits of around 0.2g·dm^–2 (0.002 mg/kg) can be achieved for antimony in a sample of polyethylene terephthalate. This method can now been extended to measure migration into real foods. This will highlight any differences between the standard simulants currently used and real foods. Since the method only involves irradiation of the packaging material, any food matrix can be studied.     

Simultaneous determination of NOGE-related and BADGE-related compounds in canned food by ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry

An improved analytical method enabling rapid and accurate determination and identification of bisphenol F diglycidyl ether (novolac glycidyl ether 2-ring), novolac glycidyl ether 3-ring, novolac glycidyl ether 4-ring, novolac glycidyl ether 5-ring, novolac glycidyl ether 6-ring, bisphenol A diglycidyl ether, bisphenol A (2,3-dihydroxypropyl) glycidyl ether, bisphenol A (3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl) glycidyl ether, bisphenol A bis(3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl) ether, and bisphenol A (3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl) (2,3-dihydroxypropyl) ether in canned food and their contact packaging materials has been developed by using, for the first time, ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. After comparison of electrospray ionization and atmospheric pressure chemical ionization in positive and negative-ion modes, tandem mass spectrometry with positive electrospray ionization was chosen to carry out selective multiple reaction monitoring analysis of novolac glycidyl ethers, bisphenol A diglycidyl ether, and its derivatives. The analysis time is only 5.5 min per run. Limits of detection varied from 0.01 to 0.20 ng g(-1) for the different target compounds on the basis of a signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) = 3; limits of quantitation were from 0.03 to 0.66 ng g(-1). The relative standard deviation for repeatability was <8.01%. Analytical recovery ranged from 87.60 to 108.93%. This method was successfully applied to twenty samples of canned food and their contact packaging materials for determination of migration of NOGE, BADGE, and their derivatives from can coatings into food.     

Application of radiometric method for element migration determination from plastic packaging to food

In the present study, a radiometric method was applied for element migration determination from food plastic packaging to simulating solutions and foodstuffs. This method consisted of irradiating plastics with neutrons, its exposure for migration and radioactivity measurements in the food or food-simulating solutions. The migration was studied for water, juice, soft drinks, acidic fatty food and dairy product plastic packages. The results indicated Co, Cr and Sb migration to the simulating solutions and food. However, the contamination of these elements in food from packaging material was lower than the maximum limit values established by the Brazilian Surveillance Agency (ANVISA) legislation.     

Collaborative study to improve the quality control of trace element determinations in polymers. Part 2. Certification of polyethylene reference materials (CRMs 680 and 681) for As, Br, Cd, Cl, Cr, Hg, Pb, and S content

Two polymer (polyethylene) reference materials have been produced in support of EC Directive 94/62/EC on plastic packaging and packaging material. The paper describes the preparation of the materials, the analytical work performed to characterize their homogeneity and stability, and the certification of the materials for a range of elements. The technical and statistical evaluation of the results are also summarized.     

Collaborative study to improve the quality control of trace element determinations in polymers. Part 2. Certification of polyethylene reference materials (CRMs 680 and 681) for As, Br, Cd, Cl, Cr, Hg, Pb, and S content

Two polymer (polyethylene) reference materials have been produced in support of EC Directive 94/ 62/EC on plastic packaging and packaging material The paper describes the preparation of the materials, the analytical work performed to characterize their homogeneity and stability, and the certification of the materials for a range of elements. The technical and statistical evaluation of the results are also summarized.