Laser-induced cavitation bubbles and shock waves in water near a concave surface

The interplay among the cavitation structures and the shock waves following a nanosecond laser breakdown in water in the vicinity of a concave surface was visualized with high-speed shadowgraphy and schlieren cinematography. Unlike the generation of the main cavitation bubble near a flat or a convex surface, the concave surface refocuses the emitted shock waves and causes secondary cavitation near the acoustic focus which is most pronounced when triggered by the shock wave released during the first main bubble collapse. The shock wave propagation, reflection from the concave surface and its scattering on the dominant cavity is clearly resolvable on the shadowgraphs. The schlieren approach revealed the pressure build up in the last stage of the collapse and the first stage of the rebound. A persistent low-density watermark is left behind the first collapse. The observed effects are important wherever cavities collapse near indented surfaces, such as in cavitation peening, cavitation erosion and ophthalmology.     

Numerical study of the synergistic effect of cavitation and micro-abrasive particles

In ultrasonic-assisted machining, the synergistic effect of the cavitation effect and micro-abrasive particles plays a crucial role. Studies have focused on the investigation of the micro-abrasive particles, cavitation micro-jets, and cavitation shock waves either individually or in pairs. To investigate the synergy of shock waves and micro-jets generated by cavitation with micro-abrasive particles in ultrasonic-assisted machining, the continuous control equations of a cavitation bubble, shock wave, micro-jet, and micro-abrasive particle influenced by the dimensionless amount (R/R₀), a particle size-velocity–pressure model of the micro-abrasive particle was established. The effects of ultrasonic frequency, sound pressure amplitude, and changes in particle size on micro-abrasive particle velocity and pressure were numerically simulated. At an ultrasonic frequency of 20 kHz and ultrasonic sound pressure of 0.1125 MPa, a smooth spherical SiO₂ micro-abrasive particle (size = 5 µm) was obtained, with a maximum velocity of 190.3–209.4 m/s and pressure of 79.69–89.41 MPa. The results show that in the range of 5–50 μm, smaller particle sizes of the micro-abrasive particles led to greater velocity and pressure. The shock waves, micro-jets, and micro-abrasive particles were all positively affected by the dimensionless amount (R/R₀) of cavitation bubble collapse, the larger the dimensionless quantity, the faster their velocity and the higher their pressure.     

On the long-range detection and study of undamped directed temperature waves generated during the interaction between a cavitating water jet and targets

The features of the propagation of undamped thermal (temperature) waves in air are investigated. The presence of these waves is a consequence of solution of the heat equation taking into account the relaxation of local thermal perturbation. It is shown that such waves can exist only in media with a finite (nonzero) time of local thermal relaxation, and their frequencies are determined by this time. The time of relaxation in air depends on the gas composition, its temperature and increases with a decrease in pressure. Under normal conditions, the minimum frequency of undamped waves in air corresponds to 70–80 MHz. One of the methods for exciting these waves is associated with pulsed heating of the surface of a medium bordering air. Pulsed heating on account of the application of shock waves generated during water jet cavitation is used. It is shown for the first time that these waves with frequencies in the range of 70–500 MHz can propagate in air without damping over a distance of up to 2 m.     

On the governing fragmentation mechanism of primary intermetallics by induced cavitation

One of the main applications of ultrasonic melt treatment is the grain refinement of aluminium alloys. Among several suggested mechanisms, the fragmentation of primary intermetallics by acoustic cavitation is regarded as very efficient. However, the physical process causing this fragmentation has received little attention and is not yet well understood. In this study, we evaluate the mechanical properties of primary Al₃Zr intermetallics by nano-indentation experiments and correlate those with in-situ high-speed imaging (of up to 1 Mfps) of their fragmentation process by laser-induced cavitation (single bubble) and by acoustic cavitation (cloud of bubbles) in water. Intermetallic crystals were chemically extracted from an Al-3 wt% Zr alloy matrix. Mechanical properties such as hardness, elastic modulus and fracture toughness of the extracted intermetallics were determined using a geometrically fixed Berkovich nano-diamond and cube corner indenter, under ambient temperature conditions. The studied crystals were then exposed to the two cavitation conditions mentioned. Results demonstrated for the first time that the governing fragmentation mechanism of the studied intermetallics was due to the emitted shock waves from the collapsing bubbles. The fragmentation caused by a single bubble collapse was found to be almost instantaneous. On the other hand, sono-fragmentation studies revealed that the intermetallic crystal initially underwent low cycle fatigue loading, followed by catastrophic brittle failure due to propagating shock waves. The observed fragmentation mechanism was supported by fracture mechanics and pressure measurements using a calibrated fibre optic hydrophone. Results showed that the acoustic pressures produced from shock wave emissions in the case of a single bubble collapse, and responsible for instantaneous fragmentation of the intermetallics, were in the range of 20–40 MPa. Whereas, the shock pressure generated from the acoustic cavitation cloud collapses surged up to 1.6 MPa inducing fatigue stresses within the crystal leading to eventual fragmentation.     

Physical and chemical characterization of shock-induced cavitation

A strong impact on a water surface induces a shock wave propagation with a significant pressure variation leading to cavitation bubble formation. A new shock induced cavitation reactor described in this work was characterized by physical and chemical techniques. Water hammer model verification with Joukowsky approach allowed to determine the wave speed propagation and gas fraction in water submitted to shock. These values were used for frequency analysis and compared with direct bubble visualization in order to estimate the influence of the experimental parameters on the shock-induced cavitation. Thereby, the shock wave contains a broad spectrum as decomposed into frequencies. This multi-frequency nature induces heterogeneous bubbles with calculated radii of 0.01 to 3.5 mm and observed radii of 0.01 to 2.8 mm depending on experimental conditions (initial pressure, impact height, gas atmosphere). For the first time, the formation of hydroxyl radicals was proven under impact-induced cavitation. The concentration of radicals increases with increasing number of successive impacts, reaching ca. 1.3 µmol.L⁻¹ after 500 impacts in the presence of 20% O₂-Ar as saturating gas. Radical generation seems to be relatively independent of the impact height but strongly depend on the type of gas saturating water, being substantially lower in the presence of air. Moreover, radical generation increases when decreasing the initial pressure and depends on the frequency at which water is impacted by the piston. Nevertheless, yield of OH radicals during shock-induced cavitation remains much lower than that produced by power ultrasound.     

Shock-cavitational mechanism of X-ray generation during fast water stream cavitation

The process of generation of X-ray radiation formed during the free exit of a fast stream of water in a state of cavitation from a narrow channel was investigated both experimentally and theoretically. It was observed for the first time that the initial part of the stream and the outlet of the channel are the sources of intensive X-ray radiation (with an activity of 0.1 Cu), which is connected with the cavitation phenomena and the following excitation of shock waves. The frequency of the X-ray radiation depends on the composition of the radiating surface (water or the surface of the channel walls) and increases with the increase of the atomic number of the surface. The mechanism of radiation generation is connected with the influence of cavitation shock waves formed on the nearest interface (water-air, water-metal, metal-air, air-metal, etc.).     

Effects of an absorptive coating on the dynamics of underwater laser-induced shock process

The effects of an absorptive coating on the dynamics of underwater laser-induced shock process have been observed from the end of laser pulse to hundreds of microseconds after irradiation by time-resolved imaging techniques. A laser pulse of 13 ns at 1,064 nm was focused by a 40-mm focal length lens onto the surface of epoxy-resin blocks immersed in water to induce the shock process in the confining regime. A custom-designed time-resolved photoelasticity imaging technique and a high-speed laser stroboscopic videography technique in photoelasticity mode were used to analyze the evolution of shock waves in the water phase, the strength of stress waves in the solid phase, the oscillation of cavitation bubbles, and the generation of bubble-collapse-induced shock waves. We showed that black paint coating enhances the strength of laser-induced stress wave inside the solid, drives faster shock waves traveling in the water phase, and produces higher-energy cavitation bubbles. We propose that even at power densities of 1 GW/cm² and above, an absorptive coating can intensify the shock process by enhancing the absorption of laser energy by plasma.     

Modified shock waves for extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy: a simulation based on the Gilmore formulation

Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (SWL) is a reliable therapy for the treatment of urolithiasis. Nevertheless, improvements to enhance stone fragmentation and reduce tissue damage are still needed. During SWL, cavitation is one of the most important stone fragmentation mechanisms. Bubbles with a diameter between about 7 and 55 μm have been reported to expand and collapse after shock wave passage, forming liquid microjets at velocities of up to 400 m/s that contribute to the pulverization of renal calculi. Several authors have reported that the fragmentation efficiency may be improved by using tandem shock waves. Tandem SWL is based on the fact that the collapse of a bubble can be intensified if a second shock wave arrives tenths or even a few hundredths of microseconds before its collapse. The object of this study is to determine if tandem pulses consisting of a conventional shock wave (estimated rise time between 1 and 20 ns), followed by a slower second pressure profile (0.8 μs rise time), have advantages over conventional tandem SWL. The Gilmore equation was used to simulate the influence of the modified pressure field on the dynamics of a single bubble immersed in water and compare the results with the behavior of the same bubble subjected to tandem shock waves. The influence of the delay between pulses on the dynamics of the collapsing bubble was also studied for both conventional and modified tandem waves. For a bubble of 0.07 mm, our results indicate that the modified pressure profile enhances cavitation compared to conventional tandem waves at a wide range of delays (10-280 μs). According to this, the proposed pressure profile could be more efficient for SWL than conventional tandem shock waves. Similar results were obtained for a ten times smaller bubble.     

Bubble proliferation in the cavitation field of a shock wave lithotripter

Lithotripter shock waves (SWs) generated in non-degassed water at 0.5 and 2 Hz pulse repetition frequency (PRF) were characterized using a fiber-optic hydrophone. High-speed imaging captured the inertial growth-collapse-rebound cycle of cavitation bubbles, and continuous recording with a 60 fps camcorder was used to track bubble proliferation over successive SWs. Microbubbles that seeded the generation of bubble clouds formed by the breakup of cavitation jets and by bubble collapse following rebound. Microbubbles that persisted long enough served as cavitation nuclei for subsequent SWs, as such bubble clouds were enhanced at fast PRF. Visual tracking suggests that bubble clouds can originate from single bubbles.     

Experimental study of the cavitation noise and vibration induced by the choked flow in a Venturi reactor

In this paper, the cavitation performance and corresponding pressure pulsation, noise and vibration induced by the choked cavitating flow in a Venturi reactor are investigated experimentally under different cavitation conditions by using high-speed camera and high frequency sensors. Based on the instantaneous continuous cavitation images, the Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD), a tool to analyze the large-scale cavitation flow structure, is applied to investigate the choked cavitating flow dynamics. The POD results show that two mechanisms, re-entrant jet flow mechanism and shock wave mechanism, govern the shedding and collapse of cavitation cloud at different pressure ratios. These mechanisms contribute to the variation of pressure pulsation, noise and vibration at different pressure ratios. The pressure pulsation spectrum behaves differently in various cavitation regions induced by the choked cavitating flow. Due to the existence of low pressure in re-entrant region, the influence of high frequency fluctuation on pressure pulsation caused by re-entrant flow is small. Moreover, with the increase of pressure ratio, the induced noise and vibration intensity decreases gradually, then increases and reaches a maximum value. Finally, it drops to a low and stable level. Despite different inlet pressures, the intensity of cavitation noise and vibration reaches the maximum value at the same pressure ratio. Specifically, the FFT analysis of noise and vibration signals indicates that low frequency component prevails at small pressure ratio owing to the re-entrant jet mechanism, while high frequency component prevails at large pressure ratio owing to the shock wave mechanism. The relationship between the choked cavitation dynamics and the induced pressure pulsation, noise and vibration in the Venturi reactor is highlighted. The results can provide guidance for the optimal operation condition of the Venturi reactor for cavitation applications such as water treatment.     

Quantitative measurements of acoustic emissions from cavitation at the surface of a stone in response to a lithotripter shock wave

Measurements are presented of acoustic emissions from cavitation collapses on the surface of a synthetic kidney stone in response to shock waves (SWs) from an electrohydraulic lithotripter. A fiber optic probe hydrophone was used for pressure measurements, and passive cavitation detection was used to identify acoustic emissions from bubble collapse. At a lithotripter charging voltage of 20 kV, the focused SW incident on the stone surface resulted in a peak pressure of 43 +/- 6 MPa compared to 23 +/- 4 MPa in the free field. The focused SW incident upon the stone appeared to be enhanced due to the acoustic emissions from the forced cavitation collapse of the preexisting bubbles. The peak pressure of the acoustic emission from a bubble collapse was 34 +/- 15 MPa, that is, the same magnitude as the SWs incident on the stone. These data indicate that stresses induced by focused SWs and cavitation collapses are similar in magnitude thus likely play a similar role in stone fragmentation.     

利用电磁波折射现象计算和测量液体折射率

电磁波在传播过程中如果遇到障碍物,就会产生反射和折射现象,并且遵守反射定律和折射定律.本实验利用一个金属板作为反射体,利用蒸馏水、乙醇、糖溶液(80％)作为折射体,验证了电磁波中反射现象和折射现象,同时测量出了液体的折射率.     

Numerical 3D flow simulation of ultrasonic horns with attached cavitation structures and assessment of flow aggressiveness and cavitation erosion sensitive wall zones

As a contribution to a better understanding of cavitation erosion mechanisms, a compressible inviscid finite volume flow solver with barotropic homogeneous liquid–vapor mixture cavitation model is applied to ultrasonic horn set-ups with and without stationary specimen, that exhibit attached cavitation at the horn tip. Void collapses and shock waves, which are closely related to cavitation erosion, are resolved. The computational results are compared to hydrophone, shadowgraphy and erosion test data. At the horn tip, vapor volume and topology, subharmonic oscillation frequency as well as the amplitude of propagating pressure waves are in good agreement with experimental data. For the evaluation of flow aggressiveness and the assessment of erosion sensitive wall zones, statistical analyses of wall loads and of the multiplicity of distinct collapses in wall-adjacent flow regions are applied to the horn tip and the stationary specimen. An a posteriori projection of load collectives, i.e. cumulative collapse rate vs. collapse pressure, onto a reference grid eliminates the grid dependency effectively for attached cavitation at the horn tip, whereas a significant grid dependency remains at the stationary specimen. The load collectives show an exponential decrease towards higher collapse pressures. Erosion sensitive wall zones are well predicted for both, horn tip and stationary specimen, and load profiles are in good qualitative agreement with measured topography profiles of eroded duplex stainless steel samples after long-term runs. For the considered amplitude and gap width according to ASTM G32-10 standard, the analysis of load collectives reveals that the distinctive erosive ring shape at the horn tip can be attributed to frequent breakdown and re-development of a small portion of the tip-attached cavity. This partial breakdown of the attached cavity repeats at each driving cycle and is associated with relatively moderate collapse peak pressures, whereas the stationary specimen is rather unfrequently stressed at the end of each subharmonic oscillation cycle by the violent collapse of the complete cavity.     

Delivery by shock waves of active principle embedded in gelatin-based capsules

PURPOSE: Delivering a drug close to the targeted cells improves its benefit versus risk ratio. A possible method for local drug delivery is to encapsulate the drug into solid microscopic carriers and to release it by ultrasound. The objective of this work was to use shock waves for delivering a molecule loaded in polymeric microcapsules. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Ethyl benzoate (EBZ) was encapsulated in spherical gelatin shells by complex coacervation. A piezocomposite shock wave generator (120 mm in diameter, focused at 97 mm, pulse length 1.4 micros) was used for sonicating the capsules and delivering the molecule. Shock parameters (acoustic pressure, number of shocks and shock repetition frequency) were varied in order to measure their influence on EBZ release. A cavitation-inhibitor liquid (Ablasonic) was then used to evaluate the role of cavitation in the capsule disruption. RESULTS: The measurements showed that the mean quantity of released EBZ was proportional to the acoustic pressure of the shock wave (r2 > 0.99), and increased with the number of applied shocks. Up to 88% of encapsulated EBZ could be released within 4 min only (240 shocks, 1 Hz). However, the quantity of released EBZ dropped at high shock rates (above 2Hz). Ultrasound imaging sequences showed that cavitation clouds might form, at high shock rates, along the acoustic axis making the exposure inefficient. Measurements done in Ablasonic showed that cavitation plays a major role in microcapsules disruption. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, we designed polymeric capsules that can be disrupted by shock waves. This type of microcapsule is theoretically a suitable vehicle for carrying hydrophobic drugs. Following these positive results, encapsulation of drugs is considered for further medical applications.     

Generation of X-rays at bubble cavitation in a fast liquid jet in dielectric channels

The paper presents the results of studying the combined shock-wave radiation-emission processes associated with cavitation phenomena that occur at fast directional motion of a liquid jet into a closed working chamber through narrow dielectric channels. These processes induce high-power tunable X-ray radiation outside the chamber. At a relatively small liquid pressure, cavitation has been shown to generate shock waves in the chamber walls, which excites surface atoms and leads to the emission of X-rays from the outer surface of the chamber. At a high liquid pressure, the liquid jet does not touch the chamber walls and the cavitational shock waves lead to the excitation of the surface atoms of the jet itself accompanied by the generation of optical and X-ray radiation in the jet, which has been also observed in experiments.     

Generation of intense x-rays during ejection of a fast water jet from a metal channel to atmosphere

The radiation processes associated with a supersonic water jet exhausting from a narrow channel are considered. It has been found for the first time that the output of the channel and the initial portion of the jet are sources of intense X-radiation, generation of which is related to cavitation processes in the water jet bulk and subsequent excitation of shock waves. The frequency of X-radiation depends on the types of atoms on a radiating surface (for a jet, it is water; for a channel, the metal atoms on the surface) and increases with the charge of atoms. The total X-ray activity of an experimental setup in the mode of jet exhaust reaches 0.1 Ci. It is found for the first time that the impact of shock acoustic waves, which are formed in the air as a result of cavitation jets of water, on distant screens leads to the generation of a quasi-coherent directional X-ray emission from the back side of these screens. The spatial parameters of this radiation depend on the shape and cross section of the screen and the spatial characteristics of the shock wave.     

Luminescence induced by spherically focused acoustic pulses in liquids

The determination of the phase of the bubble oscillation at the instant of light emission, which is a key issue for understanding the origin of cavitation luminescence of liquids, is discussed. The observation of luminescence in the course of the nucleation and growth of a bubble up to its collapse is performed in a bipolar wave consisting of a compression phase followed by a rarefaction phase in the regime of a two-fraction bubble cluster formation. The space-time distributions of the luminescence intensity and pressure and the dynamics of the cluster in water and a glycerin solution are investigated at the early stage of cavitation. A correlation between the maximal density of light flashes and the positive pressure pulses in the field of superposition of the initial and secondary cavitation compression waves is revealed. It is shown that the spherical focusing of acoustic pulses both away from the boundaries of the liquid and near its free surface makes it possible to compare the luminescence intensities for different rates of the pressure decrease.     

Modeling cavitation in a rapidly changing pressure field – Application to a small ultrasonic horn

Ultrasonic horn transducers are frequently used in applications of acoustic cavitation in liquids. It has been observed that if the horn tip is sufficiently small and driven at high amplitude, cavitation is very strong, and the tip can be covered entirely by the gas/vapor phase for longer time intervals. A peculiar dynamics of the attached cavity can emerge with expansion and collapse at a self-generated frequency in the subharmonic range, i.e. below the acoustic driving frequency. The term “acoustic supercavitation” was proposed for this type of cavitation Žnidarčič et al. (2014) [1].We tested several established hydrodynamic cavitation models on this problem, but none of them was able to correctly predict the flow features. As a specific characteristic of such acoustic cavitation problems lies in the rapidly changing driving pressures, we present an improved approach to cavitation modeling, which does not neglect the second derivatives in the Rayleigh–Plesset equation. Comparison with measurements of acoustic supercavitation at an ultrasonic horn of 20 kHz frequency revealed a good agreement in terms of cavity dynamics, cavity volume and emitted pressure pulsations.The newly developed cavitation model is particularly suited for simulation of cavitating flow in highly fluctuating driving pressure fields.     

A mechanistic analysis of stone fracture in lithotripsy

In vitro experiments and an elastic wave model were used to analyze how stress is induced in kidney stones by lithotripsy and to test the roles of individual mechanisms-spallation, squeezing, and cavitation. Cylindrical U30 cement stones were treated in an HM-3-style lithotripter. Baffles were used to block specific waves responsible for spallation or squeezing. Stones with and without surface cracks added to simulate cavitation damage were tested in glycerol (a cavitation suppressive medium). Each case was simulated using the elasticity equations for an isotropic medium. The calculated location of maximum stress compared well with the experimental observations of where stones fractured in two pieces. Higher calculated maximum tensile stress correlated with fewer shock waves required for fracture. The highest calculated tensile stresses resulted from shear waves initiated at the proximal corners and strengthened along the side surfaces of the stone by the liquid-borne lithotripter shock wave. Peak tensile stress was in the distal end of the stone where fracture occurred. Reflection of the longitudinal wave from the distal face of the stone--spallation-produced lower stresses. Surface cracks accelerated fragmentation when created near the location where the maximum stress was predicted.     

Acoustic cavitation in 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(triflluoromethyl-sulfonyl)imide based ionic liquid

In this work, a comparison between the temperatures/pressures within acoustic cavitation bubble in an imidazolium-based room-temperature ionic liquid (RTIL), 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(triflluoromethyl-sulfonyl)imide ([BMIM][NTf₂]), and in water has been made for a wide range of cavitation parameters including frequency (140–1000 kHz), acoustic intensity (0.5–1 W cm⁻²), liquid temperature (20–50 °C) and external static pressure (0.7–1.5 atm). The used cavitation model takes into account the liquid compressibility as well as the surface tension and the viscosity of the medium. It was found that the bubble temperatures and pressures were always much higher in the ionic liquid compared to those predicted in water. The valuable effect of [BMIM][NTf₂] on the bubble temperature was more pronounced at higher acoustic intensity and liquid temperature and lower frequency and external static pressure. However, confrontation between the predicted and the experimental estimated temperatures in ionic liquids showed an opposite trend as the temperatures measured in some pure ionic liquids are of the same order as those observed in water. The injection of liquid droplets into cavitation bubbles, the pyrolysis of ionic liquids at the bubble-solution interface as well as the lower number of collapsing bubbles in the ionic liquid may be the responsible for the lower measured bubble temperatures in ionic liquids, as compared with water.