Flattened Brazilian Disc Method for Determining the Dynamic Tensile Stress-Strain Curve of Low Strength Brittle Solids

An indirect tensile testing method is proposed to measure the full dynamic tensile stress-strain curve of low strength brittle solids. In this method, the flattened-Brazilian disc (FBD) sample is loaded by modified split Hopkinson pressure bars (SHPB) system. Low amplitude dynamic forces were measured with a pair of piezoelectric force transducers embedded in the incident bar and the transmitted bar. The evolution of tensile stress at the center of the disc sample was determined through finite element analyses using the measured stress in SHPB as inputs. In a traditional Brazilian test, a strain gauge is mounted at the center of the specimen to measure the tensile strain, which is difficult to apply for low strength brittle materials. Thus, two types of non-contact methods, the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique and the Laser Gap Gauge (LGG), were used to measure the strain. The DIC method was used to monitor the displacement and the strain map of the specimen during the test, from which the strain at the center of the specimen can be obtained. The accuracy of the DIC results was assessed, and the displacement and strain uncertainties of our system were 0.003 mm and 0.003, respectively. LGG was used to monitor the expansion of the disc perpendicular to the loading axis, from which the average tensile strain is deduced. The numerical simulation revealed that the tensile strain at the center of the specimen is proportional to the average tensile strain and that the ratio is not sensitive to the material elastic parameters. The strain measured through LGG was compared with that measured by the DIC method using photos captured with a synchronized high-speed camera. The result of the LGG method was 20 % smaller than that of the DIC process. However, the latter was limited by the number of frames of the high-speed camera. The feasibility of this methodology was demonstrated using a polymer-bonded explosive (PBX).     

基于超高速相机的数字图像相关性全场应变分析在SHTB实验中的应用

基于超高速相机和数字图像相关性全场应变分析方法对传统的分离式Hopkinson拉杆(SHTB)实验系统进行改进,获得尼龙和铝合金材料的动态拉伸应力应变曲线,验证了数字图像相关性全场应变分析在SHTB实验中的有效性。实验结果显示:该方法测量的平均应变与应变片测量结果一致性很好, 而传统的SHTB实验原理计算的应变结果则明显偏大,需要对试件原始标距进行修正后才能获得有效的试件应变,并且在试件的材料和几何尺寸不变的条件下标距修正不依赖于应变率。基于数字图像相关性全场应变测量,讨论了应变均匀性问题:脆性的尼龙试件在标距范围内应变均匀性良好,而韧性的铝合金试件表现出比较严重的应变不均匀性,归因于颈缩变形的影响。     

Use of 3-D Digital Image Correlation to Characterize the Mechanical Behavior of a Fiber Reinforced Refractory Castable

Refractory castables exhibit very low fracture strain levels when subjected to tension or bending. The main objective of this work is to show that 3-D digital image correlation (3-D DIC) allows such low strain levels to be measured. Compared to mechanical extensometer measurements, 3-D DIC makes it possible to reach similar strain resolution levels and to avoid the problem of position dependance related to the heterogeneous nature of the strain and to strain localization phenomena. First, the 3-D DIC method and the experimental set-up are presented. Secondly, an analysis of the 3-D DIC method is performed in order to evaluate the resolution, the standard uncertainty and the spatial resolution for both displacement and strain measurements. An optimized compromise between strain spatial resolution and standard uncertainty is reached for the configuration of the experimental bending test. Finally, the macroscopic mechanical behavior of a fiber reinforced refractory castable (FRRC) is studied using mechanical extensometry and 3-D DIC in the case of tensile and four-point bending tests. It is shown that similar results are obtained with both methods. Furthermore, in the case of bending tests on damaged castable, 3-D DIC results demonstrate the ability to determine Young’s modulus from heterogeneous strain fields better than by using classical beam deflection measurements.     

单向增强玻璃钢复合材料静/动态拉伸实验研究

本文针对单向增强玻璃钢复合材料,进行了一系列静/动态拉伸试验,利用高速摄影与DIC相结合的方法,获得了材料不同方向、不同应变率的应力-应变曲线以及材料在不同方向上的动态失效应变,精确地描述了材料的静/动态拉伸及失效行为。实验结果表明,纤维增强方向在不同应变率(10^-3、10、10^2 s^-1)拉伸应力-应变曲线均存在一个刚度减小的刚度变化点N,变化后的Echanged分别为初始弹性模量Einitial的67.5%、39.0%、21.4%。此材料在不同应变率(10^-3、10、10^2 s^-1)拉伸情况下,纤维增强的方向1上强度最高(分别为608、967、1 123 MPa),方向2强度最低(分别为75、67、58 MPa),方向3强度较低(分别为90、151、221 MPa)。利用高速摄影与DIC相结合的方法,获得了100 s^-1应变率下,不同铺层方向破坏时刻的动态失效参数(方向1~3的动态失效应变分别为0.267、0.078、0.099),可以更加精确地描述此单向增强玻璃钢复合材料的动态失效行为。     

Dynamic Tensile Response of a Microwave Damaged Granitic Rock

Background

Understanding the dynamic tensile response of microwave damaged rock is of great significance to promote the development of microwave-assisted hard rock breakage technology. However, most of the current research on this issue is limited to static loading conditions, which is inconsistent with the dynamic stress circumstances encountered in real rock-breaking operations.

Objective

The objective of this work is to investigate the effects of microwave irradiation on the dynamic tensile strength, full-field displacement distribution and average fracture energy of a granitic rock.

Methods

The split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) system combined with digital image correlation (DIC) technique is adopted to conduct the experiments. The overload phenomenon, which refers to the strength over-estimation phenomenon in the Brazilian test, is validated using the conventional strain gauge method. Based on the DIC analysis, a new approach for calculating the average fracture energy is proposed.

Results

Experimental results show that both the apparent and true tensile strengths increase with the loading rate while decreasing with the increase of the irradiation duration; and the true tensile strength after overload correction is lower than the apparent strength. Besides, the overload ratio and fracture energy also show the loading rate and irradiation duration dependency.

Conclusions

Our findings prove clearly that microwave irradiation significantly weakens the dynamic tensile properties of granitic rock.

     

Quantitative Strain Analysis of the Large Deformation at the Scale of Microstructure: Comparison between Digital Image Correlation and Microgrid Techniques

A comparative study has been carried out to assess the accuracy of the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique for the quantification of large strains in the microstructure of an Interstitial Free (IF) steel used in automotive applications. A microgrid technique has been used in this study in order to validate independently the strain measurements obtained with DIC. Microgrids with a pitch of 5 microns were printed on the etched microstructure of the IF steel to measure the local in-plane strain distribution during a tensile test carried out in a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The progressive deformation of the microstructure with microgrids has been recorded throughout the test as a sequence of micrographs and subsequently processed using DIC to quantify the distribution of local strain values. Strain maps obtained with the two techniques have been compared in order to assess the accuracy of the DIC measurements obtained using the natural patterns of the revealed microstructure in the SEM micrographs. The results obtained with the two techniques are qualitatively similar and thus, demonstrate the reliability of DIC applied to microstructures, even after large deformations in excess of 0.7. However, an average error of about 16?% was found in the strain values calculated using DIC.     

混凝土一维应力层裂实验的全场DIC分析

基于74mm直径分离式Hopkinson杆(SHPB)实验平台进行了混凝土杆的一维应力层裂实验.采用超高速相机(采样频率:2 $\mu$s/frame)结合数字图像相关法(DIC),记录混凝土试件中的动态位移场实时变化情况,探讨了混凝土在拉伸断裂过程中的表面位移场及速度场演化规律.针对实验中出现的多重层裂现象,基于一维应力波传播理论,指出各个位置在发生层裂时,其最大拉应力均由透射压缩波与反射拉伸波叠加而成,各处层裂发生时均处于一维应力状态.并提出了根据层裂位置左右两点速度趋势变化判断层裂发生时刻的判据.该判据可以给出所有层裂的起裂时间,结合DIC分析直接给出了混凝土多重层裂应变.结果显示混凝土的拉伸强度具有明显的应变率效应,在30 s$^{-1}$的应变率下,其拉伸强度的动态增强因子(DIF)可以达到5.与传统的波叠加法和自由面速度回跳法相比,DIC全场分析法不受加载波形限制,可以精确给出每个层裂的位置和起裂时间,从而得到试件在高应变率加载下不同位置处的断裂应变、拉伸强度及相应应变率,提高了测量效率.      

An Experimental Method to Determine the Tensile Strength of Concrete at High Rates of Strain

In the present work, dynamic tensile strength of concrete is experimentally investigated by means of spalling tests. Based on extensive numerical simulations, the paper presents several advances to improve the processing of spalling tests. The striker is designed to get a more uniform tensile stress field in the specimen. Three methods proposed in the literature to deduce the dynamic strength of the specimen are discussed as well as the use of strain gauges and a laser extensometer. The experimental method is applied to process data of several tests performed on wet micro-concrete at strain rates varying from 30 to 150/s. A significant increase of the dynamic tensile strength with strain-rate is observed and compared with data of the literature. In addition, post-mortem studies of specimens are carried to improve the analysis of damage during spalling tests.     

Characterization of mechanical properties of aluminum cast alloy at elevated temperature

The tensile response, the low cycle fatigue(LCF) resistance, and the creep behavior of an aluminum(Al) cast alloy are studied at ambient and elevated temperatures.A non-contact real-time optical extensometer based on the digital image correlation(DIC)is developed to achieve strain measurements without damage to the specimen. The optical extensometer is validated and used to monitor dynamic strains during the mechanical experiments. Results show that Young's modulus of the cast alloy decreases with the increasing temperature, and the percentage elongation to fracture at 100℃ is the lowest over the temperature range evaluated from 25℃ to 300℃. In the LCF test, the fatigue strength coefficient decreases, whereas the fatigue strength exponent increases with the rising temperature. The fatigue ductility coefficient and exponent reach maximum values at 100℃. As expected, the resistance to creep decreases with the increasing temperature and changes from 200℃ to 300℃.     

大理岩动态拉伸强度及弹性模量的SHPB实验研究

提出了获取脆性材料动态拉伸强度及弹性模量的实验步骤及相关记录数据的分析方法。利用直径为100mm的分离式Hopkinson压杆径向冲击巴西圆盘和平台巴西圆盘试样,测试了大理岩在高应变率加载下的动态力学性能。应力波加载下动态劈裂拉伸圆盘在试样中心产生了约45/s的拉伸应变率。分析了实验的有效性并考虑了试样两个端面应力波波形差异的影响以提高实验结果的精度。结果表明准静态下的公式可适用于动态劈裂拉伸实验;大理岩的动态拉伸强度及弹性模量比静态时有明显的增加。     

玄武岩纤维高延性水泥基复合材料的动态力学性能

利用玄武岩纤维和水泥基材料，通过一定配比融合制成了在静态拉伸试验中呈现多缝开裂、应变硬化、极限拉伸应变0.5%以上的玄武岩纤维高延性水泥基复合材料(basalt fiber engineered cementitious composites, BF-ECCs)。用分离式霍普金森压杆(split Hopkinson pressure bar, SHPB)装置对不同玄武岩纤维掺量的水泥基复合材料进行动态压缩和动态劈裂试验。结果表明:(1)在压、拉两种应力状态下,玄武岩纤维对水泥基复合材料的静态强度、动态强度均有增强，且高应变率下玄武岩纤维对抗压强度动态增幅较小，对劈裂强度动态增幅较大；(2) BF-ECC的抗压强度和劈裂强度均随应变率升高而显著提高，两者均可以采用动态增强因子(dynamic increase factor, DIF)反映动态强度的增幅，但劈裂强度的应变率敏感性强于抗压强度；(3)依据试验得到的普通水泥混凝土速率敏感性的CEB-FIP方程(2010)不适用于BF-ECCs。     

基于图像分析法的水稻茎秆力学性能测量与分析

水稻茎秆力学性能的准确描述是水稻抗倒伏力学分析的关键。由于茎秆是由生物活性材料组成的形状不规则柔性结构,传统的测试方法难以对其力学性能进行准确测量。以南方水稻为研究对象,采用拉伸试验机对水稻茎秆进行了拉伸试验。首先采用传统的应变片方法测量应变,继而探索采用图像分析法实现非接触、高精度地测量水稻茎秆的截面尺寸、拉伸变形。用数字摄像机记录不同荷载水平下试件表面的数字图像,采用数字图像相关分析法(DIC)进行分析,通过两种方法计算茎秆的轴向应变;将完成拉伸实验的试件切片,采集其横截面的数字图像,通过数字图像分析技术得到其几何特性,并对大量实验数据进行了统计分析,实现了对水稻茎秆弹性模量、抗弯刚度等的合理描述。实验结果表明,采用传统的应变片测量求得的水稻茎秆的弹性模量的离散性极大,超出样本差异性的范围,而采用数字图像分析方法得到的弹性模量、抗弯刚度的结果有一定的离散性,但分布比较合理,比较准确地反映了水稻茎秆相关的力学性能。     

混凝土冲击破坏动态力学及能量特性分析

动强度和能量耗散规律是研究混凝土动力特性的主要内容。为探究混凝土在冲击荷载作用下的动态力学、变形以及能量演化特征,利用直径为100 mm的霍普金森杆装置对骨料率为0、32%、37%和42%的混凝土试样,分别进行了冲击速度为5、6、7 m/s的冲击压缩试验。探讨了冲击速度和骨料率对试样变形、动强度以及分形维数的影响,建立了动强度关于冲击速度和骨料率的表达式,并对试样吸收能和裂纹表面能之间的关系进行了对比分析。结果表明:混凝土试样破坏时出现了变形滞后现象,破坏形式主要以劈裂拉伸破坏为主;动强度随冲击速度、骨料率的增大而增大,用所建动强度公式可以较好地预估混凝土动强度;混凝土破坏碎块分形维数、吸收能和裂纹表面能均随冲击速度的增大而增大,随骨料率的增大而减小,且吸收能始终高于裂纹表面能,当骨料率为37%时,吸收能转化率最高,约91%转化为裂纹表面能。     

UHPFRC圆盘动态劈裂试验及基于μXCT图像的破坏机理研究

采用分离式霍普金森压杆对钢纤维体积分数为0～3%的超高性能纤维增强混凝土（ultra high performance fibre reinforced concrete, UHPFRC）圆盘试件进行应变率为1.72～7.42 s-1的动态劈裂试验,使用高速摄像机结合数字图像相关（digital image correlation, DIC）法获得试件表面裂缝扩展全过程图像和应变演化过程,并对冲击前后试件进行微观X射线计算断层扫描（micro X-ray computed tomography,μXCT）,获得分辨率为56.7μm的三维内部图像,并进行统计和破坏机理分析。结果表明：(1)相比无纤维试件,掺入1%～3%的钢纤维,静、动劈裂强度分别提高84%～131%和47%～87%,动劈裂强度增强因子（即动静强度比值）为1.07～1.72;(2) DIC应变图像分析表明,无纤维试件裂缝集中、破坏快、能耗低;含纤维试件裂缝弥散程度大、能耗高、延性好,且随着纤维含量的提高而提升;(3)μXCT图像分析表明,试件中钢纤维体积分数为1.04%～2.47%,与设计基本一致,孔洞体积分数为0.98%...     

钢纤维掺量对活性粉末混凝土力学性能的影响

通过实验研究了活性粉末混凝土的基本力学性能(抗压强度、劈拉强度和抗折强度),分析了钢纤维掺量对活性粉末混凝土力学性能的影响,拟合得到了抗折强度与劈拉强度之间的关系表达式。在实验分析的基础上,建立了不同钢纤维体积含量活性粉末混凝土受压应力-应变全曲线的数学表达式。研究结果表明：钢纤维体积含量在1.0%～3.5% 之间时,活性粉末混凝土的抗压强度、劈拉强度和抗折强度均随着钢纤维掺量的增加而增大;当钢纤维体积含量超过3.5% 后,活性粉末混凝土抗压强度下降,劈拉强度略有提高,而抗折强度仍有明显的提高。     

Distortion Correction Protocol for Digital Image Correlation after Scanning Electron Microscopy: Emphasis on Long Duration and Ex-Situ Experiments

Recently, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) has been used for digital image correlation (DIC), as micrographs can be acquired with high magnification, providing improved resolution to quantify strain heterogeneities. However, it has been shown by researchers that SEM images can be problematic due to inherent electromagnetic distortions that are not present in optical images. Drift, spatial distortions, and magnification uncertainties are the main issues that can seriously affect the accuracy of localized strain measurements. The present work focuses on long duration experiments, for which images are taken days or weeks apart. We have proposed a systematic procedure to reduce drift, correct spatial distortion, and account for magnification variations between pairs of acquired images. Additionally, SEM parameters are discussed and chosen to increase the signal-to-noise ratio and improve the accuracy of the DIC measurements. The spatial distortion correction increases the repeatability of the correlated values and the precision of the measurements. The implementation for this type of correction is done by applying the measured distortion gradient of a certified grid onto the DIC strain field. The magnification adjustment increases the reliability of the strain maps, ensuring the measurements are in agreement with the actual strain induced during the experiment. We have presented a systematic protocol for ex-situ DIC experiments within the SEM and some basic cross-check procedures that can be performed to evaluate the reliability of the reference grid and the precision of the final strain map.     

Predicting the Dynamic Compressive Strength of Carbonate Rocks from Quasi-Static Properties

In this study, the split Hopkinson pressure bar testing method was used to quantify the dynamic strength characteristics of rocks with short cylindrical specimens. Seventy dynamic compression tests were conducted on 10 different carbonate rocks with the split Hopkinson pressure bar apparatus. Experimental procedure for testing dynamic compressive strength and elastic behaviour of rock material at high strain rate loading is presented in the paper. Pulse-shaper technique was adopted to obtain dynamic stress equilibrium at the ends of the sample and to provide nearly a constant strain rate during the dynamic loading. In addition to dynamic tests, the physical properties covering bulk density, effective porosity, P-wave velocity and Schmidt hardness of rocks, and mechanical properties such as quasi-static compressive strength and tensile strength were determined through standard testing methods. Multiple linear regression analyses were carried out to investigate the variation of dynamic compressive strength depending on physical and mechanical properties of rocks and loading rate. A three parameter model was found to be simple and provided the best surface fit to data. It was found that dynamic compressive strength of rocks increases with increase in loading rate and/or increase in rock property values except porosity. Statistical tests of regression results showed that quasi-static compressive strength and Schmidt hardness are most significant rock properties to adequately predict the dynamic compressive strength value among the other properties. However, P-wave velocity, quasi-static tensile strength of rocks could also be used to estimate the dynamic compressive strength value of rocks, as well, except the bulk density and effective porosity.     

超细晶D6A钢动态拉伸力学特性实验研究

为了推进超细晶D6A钢在半穿甲战斗部壳体上的应用,研究了动态加载下其宏观力学行为和细观变形机理。运用旋转盘式Hopkinson拉杆技术,开展了超细晶D6A低合金钢（平均晶粒尺寸为510 nm）的动态拉伸实验,获得了不同应变率（500～1000 s?1）下超细晶钢的应力-应变曲线。运用TEM观测微观形貌,从细观层次研究了高应变率拉伸作用下超细晶钢的动态力学特性。结果表明,超细晶D6A钢具有较高的动态拉伸强度和良好的延展性。并且,晶粒细化和纳米析出相（渗碳体）是超细晶钢同时拥有高强度和较好韧性的重要因素;在动态拉伸过程中析出的大量纳米级渗碳体,与高密度晶界共同作用限制了位错运动,从而产生额外的塑性变形抗力,有效提升了超细晶钢的强度;在塑性变形阶段超细晶钢出现的明显应力下降现象,是可动位错密度增高的结果。     

混凝土动态双轴拉压破坏准则细观数值模拟研究

正常服役期内的混凝土结构往往处于复杂应力状态,并且不可避免地会受到偶发动力载荷作用.对于复杂载荷作用下的混凝土力学性能研究,破坏准则是基础.受试验设备等条件限制,现有的动态双轴拉压破坏准则形式复杂、缺乏更高应变率和侧应力比范围且尚未综合考虑应变率和侧应力比的耦合作用.为进一步提出适用范围更高且更准确的混凝土动态双轴拉压...