Universal Calibration Constants for Strain Gauge Hole-Drilling Residual Stress Measurements

Experimental Mechanics - There is a large geometrical variation among the commercially available strain gauge rosettes used for hole-drilling residual stress measurements. Detailed calibration data...     

Advances in Hole-Drilling Residual Stress Measurements

Residual stress measurements by hole-drilling have developed greatly in both sophistication and scope since the pioneering work of Mathar in the 1930s. Advances have been made in measurement technology to give measured data superior in both quality and quantity, and in analytical capability to give detailed residual stress results from those data. On the technology side, the use of multiple strain gauges, Moiré, Holographic Interferometry and Digital Image Correlation all provide prolific sources of high quality data. In addition, modern analytical techniques using inverse methods provide effective ways of extracting reliable residual stress results from the mass of available data. This paper describes recent advances in both the measurement and analytical areas, and indicates some promising directions for future developments.     

利用钻孔法测定残余应力问题

钻孔法是测量残余应力的一个重要方法。本文就有关文献所提供的A、B值进行分析和比较。对试验中由于贴片钻孔所造成的偏差提出了修正公式。此公式使用简便,经验算,误差在10％以内。     

Residual Stress Measurements in Finite-Thickness Materials by Hole-Drilling

Hole-drilling measurements of residual stresses are traditionally made on materials that are either very thick or very thin compared with the hole diameter. The calibration constants needed to evaluate the local residual stresses from the measured strain data are well established for these two extreme cases. However, the calibration constants for a material with finite thickness between the extremes cannot be determined by simple interpolations because of the occurrence of local bending effects not present at either extreme. An analytical model is presented of the bending around a drilled hole in a finite thickness material and a practical procedure is proposed to evaluate the corresponding hole-drilling calibration constants.     

Improved Calibration Coefficients for the Hole-Drilling Method Considering the Influence of the Poisson Ratio

For residual stress analyses with the incremental hole-drilling method adequate evaluation formalisms in order to transform the measured strains into stresses are required. The Integral Method is the most important theory used for analyses of nonlinear residual stress depth distributions. It is based on a calibration, which is carried out by Finite-Element-Analyses. For the sake of simplicity the used numerical models often represent an ideally cylindrical hole and ideal elastic material behavior with fixed elastic constants. The adaption of the calibration coefficients from the numerical simulations to the real experimental state is often performed by simple correction factors or is ignored completely. The following investigation highlights the influence of the Poisson ratio on the calibration coefficients for the most commonly used strain gage rosettes geometries, which are standardized by ASTME837-08. It comes out that the application of existing simple correction factors is only valid within a small range and better approximations can be obtained by alternative strategies.     

Hole-Drilling Residual Stress Measurement with Artifact Correction Using Full-Field DIC

A full-field, multi-axial computation technique is described for determining residual stresses using the hole-drilling method with DIC. The computational method takes advantage of the large quantity of data available from full-field images to ameliorate the effect of modest deformation sensitivity of DIC measurements. It also provides uniform residual stress sensitivity in all in-plane directions and accounts for artifacts that commonly occur within experimental measurements. These artifacts include image shift, stretch and shear. The calculation method uses a large fraction of the pixels available within the measured images and requires minimal human guidance in its operation. The method is demonstrated using measurements where residual stresses are made on a microscopic scale with hole drilling done using a Focused Ion Beam – Scanning Electron Microscope (FIB-SEM). This is a very challenging application because SEM images are subject to fluctuations that can introduce large artifacts when using DIC. Several series of measurements are described to illustrate the operation and effectiveness of the proposed residual stress computation technique.     

Plasticity Effects in the Hole-Drilling Residual Stress Measurement in Peened Surfaces

The incremental hole-drilling technique (IHD) is a widely established and accepted technique to determine residual stresses in peened surfaces. However, high residual stresses can lead to local yielding, due to the stress concentration around the drilled hole, affecting the standard residual stress evaluation, which is based on linear elastic equations. This so-called plasticity effect can be quantified by means of a plasticity factor, which measures the residual stress magnitude with respect to the approximate onset of plasticity. The observed resultant overestimation of IHD residual stresses depends on various factors, such as the residual stress state, the stress gradients and the material’s strain hardening. In peened surfaces, equibiaxial stresses are often found. For this case, the combined effect of the local yielding and stress gradients is numerically and experimentally analyzed in detail in this work. In addition, a new plasticity factor is proposed for the evaluation of the onset of yielding around drilled holes in peened surface layers. This new factor is able to explain the agreement and disagreement found between the IHD residual stresses and those determined by X-ray diffraction in shot-peened steel surfaces.     

Hole-Drilling Residual Stress Measurements at 75: Origins,Advances, Opportunities

Residual stress measurements by hole-drilling have developed greatly in both sophistication and scope since the pioneering work of Mathar in the 1930s. Advances have been made in measurement technology to give measured data superior in both quality and quantity, and in analytical capability to give detailed residual stress results from those data. On the technology side, the use of multiple strain gauges, Moiré, Holographic Interferometry and Digital Image Correlation all provide prolific sources of high quality data. In addition, modern analytical techniques using inverse methods provide effective ways of extracting reliable residual stress results from the mass of available data. This paper describes recent advances in both the measurement and analytical areas, and indicates some promising directions for future developments.     

Analysis of the Influence of the Thickness and the Hole Radius on the Calibration Coefficients in the Hole-Drilling Method for the Determination of Non-uniform Residual Stresses

Experimental Mechanics - The Hole-Drilling method is a semi-destructive technique useful for obtaining residual stress distributions by drilling and measuring relieved strains. The standard for...     

Residual Stress Measurement in Composite Laminates Using Incremental Hole-Drilling with Power Series

Current methods for incremental hole-drilling in composite laminates have not been successfully applied in laminates of arbitrary construction or where significant variation of residual stress exists within a single ply. This work presents a method to overcome these limitations. Series expansion is applied to each ply orientation separately so that the discontinuities in the residual stresses at ply interfaces can be correctly captured. Temperature variations described by power series are used to set up eigenstrains and consequent stresses which vary in the through-thickness direction. The calibration coefficients at each incremental hole depth are calculated through the use of finite element modelling. The inverse solution employs a least-squares approach which makes the resulting solution insensitive to measurement uncertainty. Robust uncertainties in the residual stress distributions are determined using Monte Carlo simulation. The residual stress distribution is found from that combination of series orders in the different ply orientations that has the lowest RMS uncertainty, selected only from those combinations that have converged. The method is demonstrated on a GFRP laminate of [0₂/+45/?45]_s construction where it is found that transverse cracking of the plies at the inner surface of the hole may have impacted on the accuracy of the results.     

钻孔法测定焊接残余应力时的εp

用钻孔法测定焊接残余应力，孔边塑性变形对测量精度有很大影响。本文对孔边屈服过程进行了研究。克服了以往在误差修正方法中的不足，确定了塑性释放应变εｐ与主应力δ１、δ２和主方向角β的函数关系：εｐ＝ｆ（δ１、δ２、β），用以修正这塑变引起的测量误差，使得在二维应力状态下最大值近２０％的测量误差降至２％以下。     

Precision of Hole-Drilling Residual Stress Depth Profile Measurements and an Updated Uncertainty Estimator

Background

Measurement precision and uncertainty estimation are important factors for all residual stress measurement techniques. The values of these quantities can help to determine whether a particular measurement technique would be viable option.

Objective

This paper determines the precision of hole-drilling residual stress measurement using repeatability studies and develops an updated uncertainty estimator.

Methods

Two repeatability studies were performed on test specimens extracted from aluminum and titanium shot peened plates. Each repeatability study included 12 hole-drilling measurements performed using a bespoke automated milling machine. Repeatability standard deviations were determined for each population. The repeatability studies were replicated using a commercially available manual hole-drilling milling machine (RS-200, Micro-Measurements). An updated uncertainty estimator was developed and was assessed using an acceptance criterion. The acceptance criterion compared an expected percentage of points (68%) to the fraction of points in the stress versus depth profile where the measured stresses ± its total uncertainty contained the mean stress of the repeatability studies.

Results

Both repeatability studies showed larger repeatability standard deviations at the surface that decay quickly (over about 0.3 mm). The repeatability standard deviation was significantly smaller in the aluminum plate (max ≈ 15 MPa, RMS?≈?6.4 MPa) than in the titanium plate (max ≈ 60 MPa, RMS?≈?21.0 MPa). The repeatability standard deviations were significantly larger when using the manual milling machine in the aluminum plate (RMS?≈?21.7 MPa), and for the titanium plate (RMS?≈?18.9 MPa).

Conclusions

The single measurement uncertainty estimate met a defined acceptance criterion based on the confidence interval of the uncertainty estimate.

     

云纹干涉与钻孔法测量搅动摩擦焊接头的残余应力

搅动摩擦焊是90年代出现的一种新型焊接技术,特别适用于熔化焊接性差的有色金属等材料.搅动摩擦焊接头的残余应力分别具有高应力梯度的特点,传统的应变片钻孔法不能满足测量要求.本文结合云纹干涉法与钻孔法的技术,得到了铝合金薄板搅拌摩擦焊接头残余应力沿深度和沿垂直焊缝方向的分布.     

Correction to: Analysis of the Influence of the Thickness and the Hole Radius on the Calibration Coefficients in the Hole-Drilling Method for the Determination of Non-uniform Residual Stresses

Experimental Mechanics - Due to an error introduced during the production process, Fig. 11 appeared incorrectly in the original publication of this article. It appears correctly here.     

Approximated Repair Methods for Outlier Strain Data from Hole-Drilling Residual Measurements

The current ASTM E 837 standard gives the standardized procedure for the evaluation of uniform and non uniform residual stresses, that is, stresses that do not vary and vary significantly with depth from the specimen surface, respectively. For non uniform stresses, the standard states that many small increments should be done in order to have a stable calculation of the residual stress profile. In addition, it states that irregularities as well as outlier strain points should be investigated and if necessary, the hole-drilling test should be repeated. In some applications outside the laboratory, the availability to repeat a test with outlier points is not possible. In these cases, the standard does not show the more appropriated way which should be followed to use only valid measured data (without outliers). For this reason, a stress profile corresponding to a shot peening test was simulated and one hole step was included in different hole depths as outlier point in order to evaluate the feasibility of some proposed ways of computation. These ways were: (a) following the ASTM procedure but replacing outlier strain points by linear interpolation of neighboring good ones, (b) following the ASTM procedure but replacing outlier strain points by a parabola interpolation of neighboring good ones and (c) using cumulative relaxation strain functions and only good measured points. Statistical criteria were also introduced and developed in order to identify outlier points. Results show a practical procedure to detect outlier points in experimental strain data.     

Determining Residual Stress from Boundary Measurements: A Linearized Approach

This article concerns the problem of recovering the residual stress in an elastic body from measurements taken on the boundary of the body. Since the Dirichlet problem for the equilibrium equation of elasticity has a unique solution, the Dirichlet to Neumann map is a well-defined map taking boundary displacement to boundary traction. The problem can thus be formulated by asking whether the mapping from possible residual stresses in a body to Dirichlet to Neumann maps is injective. As a first step in answering this question, we prove that the first order approximation of this mapping (in some cases) is injective. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

一种岩石断裂韧度试样应力强度因子的三维边界元法标定

用三维边界元法(BEM)标定了一种岩石断裂韧度试样的柔度,求出了这种试样的平均无量纲应力强度因子(SIF),并得到了对应于最大载荷时的临界裂纹长度和平均无量纲SIF的最小值.     

湍流边界层相干结构剩余脉动雷诺应力项的实验测量

用IFA300恒温热线风速仪和X形二分量热线探针以采样间隔小于湍流耗散时间尺度的分辨率精细测量了风洞中平板湍流边界层不同法向位置的瞬时流向、法向速度分量的时间序列信号。用条件采样和相位平均技术提取了相干结构猝发过程中相干结构剩余脉动雷诺应力和随机脉动对相干结构贡献的雷诺应力的条件相位平均波形。基于理论上对湍流相干结构动量方程中随机脉动对相干结构贡献的雷诺应力和相干结构剩余脉动雷诺应力项的分析,对两种雷诺应力项进行了对比研究。研究发现,相干结构剩余脉动雷诺应力项在数值上具有和随机脉动对相干结构贡献的雷诺应力相同的数量级,表明在相干结构动力学模型方程中,相干结构剩余脉动雷诺应力项并不像以前估计的那样可以忽略不计。     

Interlaboratory Reproducibility of Contour Method Data Analysis and Residual Stress Calculation

Experimental Mechanics - Background: While the contour method for residual stress assessment has developed rapidly, no published study documents its interlaboratory reproducibility. Objective: Here...     

关于线性非局部弹性理论的应力边界条件

应力边界条件的提法是线性非局部弹性理论尚未解决的一个理论问题。文中针对这一问题进行了研究，所导出的应力边界条件包含了物体微观结构的长程相互作用，这个结果不仅解释了在裂纹混合边界值问题中非线性局部弹性理论方程的解在常应力边界条件下不存在的问题，而且可以自然地得到裂纹尖端的分子内聚力模型。