Physiological Responses of Scenedesmus quadricauda (Chlorophyceae) to UV-A and UV-C Light

Despite intensive research focused on the effects of UV-B, deeper metabolic responses to UV-A and UV-C are still scarce. Besides, especially microalgal species had to develop efficient protective features in comparison with tissue structure of vascular plants. We exposed axenic cultures of Scenedesmus quadricauda (Chlorophyceae) to UV-A (366 nm) and UV-C (254 nm) light over 1 h. Both wavelengths stimulated increase in soluble proteins, superoxide radical and hydrogen peroxide, but had a nonsignificant effect on cell viability. Within 17 detected free amino acids, five (including proline) increased in response to UV-A while only aspartic acid and histidine increased in UV-C treatment. Total soluble phenols and flavonoids were influenced neither by UV-A nor by UV-C while selected flavonols (quercetin and kaempferol) decreased in UV-A and were not detected in UV-C treatment. Benzoic acid derivatives increased preferentially after UV-A illumination (vanillic acid and vanillin) while cinnamic derivatives (caffeic, chlorogenic and p-coumaric acids) decreased in both UV-A and UV-C. It is concluded that UV light stimulated oxidative stress while exposure time was not sufficient to stimulate larger changes in phenolic metabolites. Present findings in the context of available data and with emphasis on phenolics in algae are discussed.     

UV-induced changes in pigment content and light penetration in the fruticose lichen Cladonia arbuscula ssp. mitis

The response of the lichen, Cladonia arbuscula (Wallr.) Flot. ssp. mitis (Sandst.) Ruoss to enhanced UV-B (280-315 nm) radiation was investigated with respect to: (a) changes in phenolic content; (b) differential pigment accumulation under visible and UV radiation with increasing distance from thallus apices; and (c) the internal distribution of UV-B radiation within the thallus measured with quartz optical fibres. In a short-term experiment, lichens were exposed for 7 days in a growth chamber to visible light with or without additional UV-B radiation. For a longer term experiment, lichens were grown outdoors under both natural UV radiation, and supplemental UV-A (315-400 nm)+UV-B provided by lamps. Controls were placed under filters that removed the radiation below 290 nm from the natural sunlight. The concentration of total phenolic compounds was measured spectrophotometrically at the termination of the experiments, in different parts of the lichen podetia. UV-exposed lichens showed increased accumulation of phenolics compared to those not grown under UV. At the termination of the long-term experiment, fibre optic measurements of the penetration of radiation into lichen thallus reflected the influence of growth under UV radiation, whereby UV was more strongly attenuated as compared to that in lichens not exposed to enhanced levels of UV-B radiation. Results indicated that in Cladonia, UV-B radiation induces the accumulation of phenolic compounds that may have a protective role. In addition, the morphological distribution of phenolic compounds was different under visible and supplemental UV-B radiation. Internal radiation measurements served to visualise the attenuation of radiation with thallus depth for different wavelengths in the UV-B waveband.     

Global profiling of ultraviolet-induced metabolic disruption in Melissa officinalis by using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

Melissa officinalis contains various secondary metabolites that have health benefits. Generally, irradiating plants with ultraviolet (UV)-B induces the accumulation of secondary metabolites in plants. To understand the effect of UV-B irradiation on the metabolism of M. officinalis, metabolomics based on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used in this study. The GC-MS analysis revealed 37 identified metabolites from various chemical classes, including alcohols, amino acids, inorganic acids, organic acids, and sugars. The metabolite profiles of the groups of M. officinalis irradiated with UV-B were separated and differentiated according to their irradiation times (i.e., 0, 1, and 2 h), using principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA), respectively. The PCA score plots of PC1 and PC2 showed that the three groups with different irradiation times followed a certain trajectory with increasing UV-B irradiation. HCA revealed that metabolic patterns differed among the three groups, and the 1 h-irradiated group was more similar to the control group (0 h) than the 2 h-irradiated group. In particular, UV-B irradiation of plants led to a decrease in sugars such as fructose, galactose, sucrose, and trehalose and an increase in metabolites in the tricarboxylic acid cycle, the proline-linked pentose phosphate pathway, and the phenylpropanoid pathway. This study demonstrated that metabolite profiling with GC-MS is useful for gaining a holistic understanding of UV-induced changes in plant metabolism.     

Effects of supplemental UV-A on the development, anatomy and metabolite production of Phyllanthus tenellus cultured in vitro

Phyllanthus tenellus is widely used for its antiviral, analgesic and hepatoprotective properties. Although the production of several chemical classes of secondary metabolites is influenced by UV radiation, particularly phenolic compounds, we also know that UV radiation can result in anatomical and developmental damage. However, the morphological, anatomical and phytochemical changes in response to UV-A exposure are generally understudied in the Phyllanthaceae. Therefore, we evaluated the effects of UV-A radiation on plant development and leaf anatomy, as well as the production of secondary metabolites and the contents of carotenoids and chlorophylls a and b, in P. tenellus. To accomplish this, in vitro cultures of P. tenellus were maintained for 60 days under white light (WL) and WL plus UV-A radiation. Results showed different phenotypic responses under additional UV-A, such as high phenolic metabolite production, increasing dimensions of abaxial epidermis and thickness of palisade parenchyma. Compared to plants cultured under WL, UV-A radiation caused damage to plant morphogenesis, including a reduced number of branches and shoots, consequently reducing the rate of proliferation. On the other hand, geraniin, ellagic acid and carotenoid contents increased after UV-A exposure, indicating that this light source is an important resource for inducing phenolic compounds.     

Effect of UV-A irradiance on lipid accumulation in Nannochloropsis oculata

Lipids produced by microalgae can be grouped into two categories, storage lipids and structural lipids. Storage lipids are mainly triglycerides (TGs) made up of saturated fatty acids; TGs can be transesterified to produce biodiesel. Structural lipids are made of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which are essential nutrients for aquatic animals and humans. The objectives of this study were: (1) to determine the effect of UV-A at different levels of exposure on total lipid accumulation in Nannochloropsis oculata and check for reciprocity and (2) to study the interactive effect of UV-A and nutrient concentration on lipid accumulation in N. oculata. Objective 1 was accomplished by testing the effects of a range of UV-A irradiance (I), duration of exposure (T) and UV-A doses (I × T) on lipid production by N. oculata. If the same doses have a similar effect, irrespective of I and T, reciprocity holds. UV-A treatments significantly increased the chlorophyll-specific lipid concentration of N. oculata cells, and we were unable to falsify that reciprocity holds. Objective 2 was addressed by a factorial bioassay experiment with manipulated nutrient and UV-A levels. UV-A and decreased nutrients had a synergistic effect on chlorophyll-specific lipid concentration of N. oculata, resulting in higher lipid:chl ratios.     

Effects of Compound Elicitors on the Biosynthesis of Triterpenoids and Activity of Defense Enzymes from Inonotus hispidus (Basidiomycetes)

Inonotus hispidus has various health-promoting activities, such as anticancer effects and immune-stimulating activity. The commercialization of valuable plant triterpenoids faces major challenges, including low abundance in natural hosts and costly downstream purification procedures. In this work, orthogonal design was used to compound methyl jasmonate (MeJA), salicylic acid (SA), oleic acid, and Cu²⁺, and the effects of combinations on the total triterpenes biosynthesized were studied. The optimal combination was screened out and its effect on the activity of PAL, CAT, and SOD was studied. The optimal concentration of oleic acid was 2% when MeJA was 100 mol/L, and the total triterpenoid content and mycelia production were 3.918 g and 85.17 mg/g, respectively. MeJA treatment induced oxidative stress, and at the same time increased the activity of related defense enzymes. Oleic acid is thought to regulate cell permeability by recombining cell membranes. It promotes the material exchange process between cells and the environment without affecting cell growth. When oleic acid was used in combination with MeJA, a synergistic effect on triterpene production was observed. In conclusion, our findings provide a strategy for triterpenoid enrichment of I. hispidus.     

Protection of photosystem II against UV-A and UV-B radiation in the cyanobacterium Plectonema boryanum: the role of growth temperature and growth irradiance

Plectonema boryanum UTEX 485 cells were grown at 29 degrees C and 150 mumol m-2 s-1 photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and exposed to PAR combined with ultraviolet-A radiation (UV-A) at 15 degrees C. This induced a time-dependent inhibition of photosystem II (PSII) photochemistry measured as a decrease of the chlorophyll a fluorescence ratio, Fv/Fm, to 50% after 2 h of UV-A treatment compared to nontreated control cells. Exposure of the same cells to PAR combined with UV-A + ultraviolet-B radiation (UV-B) caused only a 30% inhibition of PSII photochemistry relative to nontreated cells. In contrast, UV-A and UV-A + UV-B irradiation of cells cultured at 15 degrees C and 150 mumol m-2 s-1 had minimal effects on the Fv/Fm values. However, cells grown at 15 degrees C and lower PAR irradiance (6 mumol m-2 s-1) exhibited similar inhibition patterns of PSII photochemistry as control cells. The decreased sensitivity of PSII photochemistry of P. boryanum grown at 15 degrees C and 150 mumol m-2 s-1 to subsequent exposure to UV radiation relative to either control cells or cells grown at low temperature but low irradiance was correlated with the following: (1) a reduced efficiency of energy transfer to PSII reaction centers; (2) higher levels of a carotenoid tentatively identified as myxoxanthophyll; (3) the accumulation of scytonemin and mycosporine amino acids; and (4) the accumulation of ATP-dependent caseinolytic proteases. Thus, acclimation of P. boryanum at low temperature and moderate irradiance appears to confer significant resistance to UV-induced photoinhibition of PSII. The role of excitation pressure in the induction of this resistance to UV radiation is discussed.     

Wavelength dependence of mycosporine-like amino acid synthesis in Gyrodinium dorsum

The synthesis or accumulation of mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) is an important UV tolerance mechanism in aquatic organisms. To investigate the wavelength dependence of MAA synthesis in the marine dinoflagellate Gyrodinium dorsum, the organism was exposed to polychromatic radiation (PAR and UV) from a solar simulator for up to 72 h. Different irradiance spectra were produced by inserting various cut-off filters between lamp and samples. A polychromatic action spectrum for the synthesis of MAA synthesis was constructed. PAR and long wavelength UV-A radiation showed almost no effect while the most effective wavelength range was around 310 nm. Shorter wavelengths where less effective in the induction of MAA synthesis. Wavelengths below 300 nm damaged the organisms severely as indicated by a decrease in chlorophyll a absorption.     

Characterization of self-cleaning glasses using Langmuir–Blodgett technique to control thickness of stearic acid multilayers: Importance of spectral emission to define standard test

The photocatalytic properties of commercialized self-cleaning glasses have been evaluated by the degradation of stearic acid C₁₇H₃₅COOH (SA), selected as a model molecule representative of fatty dirt. The relative amount of SA has been determined by measuring the FTIR peak area in the range 2752 and 2992 cm⁻¹ corresponding to the C–H stretching bands. In order to estimate the thickness of one layer, the deposit of SA has been performed using the Langmuir–Blodgett (LB) method, which allows obtaining organized monomolecular layers of amphiphilic organics on a substrate. The thickness of one SA layer, obtained by Langmuir–Blodgett deposition, has been correlated to the FTIR signal. The photocatalytic degradation of a SA layer of a controlled thickness was carried out in a double jacket Pyrex reactor equipped with a UV Philips HPK 125 lamp. The photocatalytic degradation rate of the SA layer with different thicknesses was determined. The SA degradation rate was investigated under UV-A and UV-B irradiations to determine the influence of the photon wavelength range on efficiency.     

Photophysical, photochemical, and thermodynamic properties of shikimic acid derivatives: calycin and rhizocarpic acid (lichens)

Photophysical and photochemical parameters of the lichen metabolites calycin and rhizocarpic acid were determined. Experiments were carried out in micellar solutions of 3% Brij 35, at pH 2 and 12, and in acetonitrile. Both metabolites absorb in the UV-A and UV-B regions, and emit fluorescence in the visible region of the solar spectrum. Shifts were not observed in the absorption spectra, at pH 2 and 12. The low phi(c), between 10(-5) and 10(-2), shows that both compounds are photostable in the experimental conditions. For rhizocarpic acid, two values of pK(a) were obtained: 5.1 corresponding to the hydroxyl group, and 9.0 corresponding to the protonated nitrogen. Calycin presents only one value of pK(a): 4.9, that is attributed to the hydroxyl group. L-(+)-Gluconic-gamma-lactonic acid was used as a reference model; the compound showed greater photoinstability, demonstrating that the photodegradation observed occurs mainly in the oxolane carbonylic ring.     

Change in Secondary Metabolites and Expression Pattern of Key Rosmarinic Acid Related Genes in Iranian Lemon Balm (Melissa officinalis L.) Ecotypes Using Methyl Jasmonate Treatments

The medicinal herb, lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.), which is high in rosmarinic acid (RA), has well-known therapeutic value. The goals of this study were to investigate the effects of methyl jasmonate (MeJA) on RA content, total phenolic content (TPC), and total flavonoid content (TFC), as well as changes in expression of their biosynthesis-related key genes (MoPAL, Mo4CL, and MoRAS) in Iranian lemon balm ecotypes, as first reported. Our results revealed that MeJA doses significantly increase the RA content, TPC, and TFC in both ecotypes compared with the control samples. Additionally, the higher expression levels of MoPAL, Mo4CL, and MoRAS following treatment were linked to RA accumulation in all treatments for both Iranian lemon balm ecotypes. After 24 h of exposure to 150 µM MeJA concentration, HPLC analysis showed that MeJA significantly increased RA content in Esfahan and Ilam ecotypes, which was about 4.18- and 7.43-fold higher than untreated plants. Our findings suggested that MeJA has a considerable influence on RA, TPC, and TFC accumulation in MeJA-treated Iranian M. officinalis, which might be the result of gene activation from the phenylpropanoid pathway. As a result of our findings, we now have a better understanding of the molecular processes behind RA production in lemon balm plants.     

UV-ABC screens of luteolin derivatives compared to edelweiss extract

Pure luteolin is a remarkably heat (200°C/6 days) and UV stable UV-A screen, however, native luteolin enriched to 37% in an edelweiss extract lost its UV-A screen properties upon UV irradiation (～4MJm(-2)). This contrasting behavior led to the examination of a series of purified luteolin derivatives as UV screen candidates. 3',4',5,7-Tetralipoyloxyflavones were synthesized from luteolin (3',4',5,7-tetrahydroxyflavone) and fatty acid chlorides. These acylated semi-biomolecules show a hypsochromic shift in UV-Vis spectra of about Δλ(A→B)=58nm and absorbed in the centre of the harmful UV-B band (λ(max)=295nm). Luteolin was also hydroxyethylated with Br(CH(2))(2)OH. This substitution has no effect on the λ(max)=330nm absorption of luteolin (UV-A band). Finally the natural 4'-O-β-glucosyl-3',5,7-trihydroxyflavone was extracted from edelweiss and used as a purified natural benchmark. Glycosylated and hydroxyethylated luteolin are both UV stable. Fully acylated luteolin derivatives degrade upon UV exposure to a stable UV-C screen with a hypsochroic shift Δλ(B→C)=35nm. All in all, three molecular structures based on luteolin with sunscreen properties were found, distinguishable in: UV-A, UV-B, and UV-C filters. The natural product based UV-absorbers show promise as alternatives to synthetic molecules and nanoparticles in sunscreen products.     

WAVELENGTH DEPENDENCE OF PHOTOINDUCED PEROXIDATION AND CYTOTOXICITY OF HUMAN LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS

The relative abilities of UV-A, B and C radiations to initiate lipid peroxidation and apolipoprotein (apo) B modification of human purified low density lipoproteins have been compared. Ultraviolet-B and C (at 310 and 254 nm, respectively) exhibited similar efficacy as shown by the increase in lipid peroxidation markers (conjugated dienes, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and fluorescent lipid soluble products) and in oxysterols, as well as by the decrease of the contents of natural antioxidants (tocopherols and carotenes) and in polyunsaturated fatty acids. In contrast, UV-A (at 360 nm) was found poorly effective and only at very high radiation intensities. Under all the conditions used, apoB was not affected by the UV radiations as shown by the stability of amino acid composition (except tryptophan level) and of trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid reactive amino group content. Similarly, the low density lipoprotein size was not altered. By comparison, low density lipoproteins oxidized by transition metal presented strong alterations of apoB and major changes of the apparent low density lipoprotein size. Finally, low density lipoproteins irradiated by UV-B. or C exhibited a much higher cytotoxicity on cultured cells than those irradiated by UV-A. Under the conditions used in this paper, the cytotoxic effect of the irradiated low density lipoproteins was positively correlated with their content in lipid peroxidation products and inversely correlated with their tocopherol content.     

Assessment of UV Biological Spectral Weighting Functions for Phenolic Metabolites and Growth Responses in Silver Birch Seedlings

In research concerning stratospheric ozone depletion, action spectra are used as biological spectral weighting functions (BSWFs) for describing the effects of UV radiation on plant responses. Our aim was to evaluate the appropriateness of six frequently used BSWFs that differ in effectiveness with increasing wavelength. The evaluation of action spectra was based on calculating the effective UV radiation doses according to 1–2) two formulations of the generalized plant action spectrum, 3) a spectrum for ultraviolet induced erythema in human skin, 4) a spectrum for the accumulation of a flavonol in Mesembryanthemum crystallinum , 5) a spectrum for DNA damage in alfalfa seedlings and 6) the plant growth action spectrum. We monitored effects of UV radiation on the concentration of individual UV absorbing metabolites and chlorophyll concentrations in leaves and growth responses of silver birch ( Betula pendula ) seedlings. Experiments were conducted outdoors using plastic films attenuating different parts of the UV spectrum. Chlorophyll concentrations and growth were not affected by the UV treatments. The response to UV radiation varied between and within groups of phenolics. In general, the observed responses of phenolic groups and individual flavonoids were best predicted by action spectra extending into the UV-A region with moderate effectiveness.     

Larvicidal activity of some secondary lichen metabolites against the mosquito Culiseta longiareolata Macquart (Diptera: Culicidae)

The larvicidal activity of some lichen metabolites, (+)-usnic acid, atranorin, 3-hydroxyphysodic acid and gyrophoric acid, against the second and third instar larvae of the mosquito Culiseta longiareolata were studied. All metabolites caused high larvicidal activities. When metabolites were compared on the basis of their LC(50) values, the order of increasing toxicity was as follows: gyrophoric acid (0.41?ppm)?>?(+)-usnic acid (0.48?ppm)?>?atranorin (0.52?ppm)?>?3-hydroxyphysodic acid (0.97?ppm). However, when LC(90) values were compared, the order of toxicity was (+)-usnic acid (1.54?ppm)?>?gyrophoric acid (1.93?ppm)?>?3-hydroxyphysodic acid (4.33?ppm)?>?atranorin (5.63?ppm). In conclusion, our results found that lichen secondary metabolites may have a promising role as potential larvicides.     

A GC-ECD method for estimation of free and bound amino acids, gamma-aminobutyric acid, salicylic acid, and acetyl salicylic acid from Solanum lycopersicum (L.)

A gas chromatograph with electron capture detection method for estimation of selected metabolites--amino acids (free and bound), gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), salicylic acid (SA), and acetyl salicylic acid (ASA) from tomato--is reported. The method is based on nitrophenylation of the metabolites by 1-fluoro-2, 4-dinitrobenzene under aqueous alkaline conditions to form dinitophenyl derivatives. The derivatives were stable under the operating conditions of GC. Analysis of bound amino acids comprised perchloric acid precipitation of protein, alkylation (carboxymethylation) with iodoacetic acid, vapor-phase hydrolysis, and derivatization with 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene in that order. The metabolites were resolved in 35 min, using a temperature-programmed run. The method is rapid, sensitive, and precise. It easily measured the typical amino acids (aspartate, asparagine, glutamate, glutamine, alanine, leucine, lysine, and phenylalanine) used for identification and quantification of a protein, resolved amino acids of the same mass (leucine and isoleucine), satisfactorily measured sulfur amino acid (methionine, cystine, and cysteine), and quantified GABA, SA, and ASA, as well. The developed method was validated for specificity, linearity, and precision. It has been applied and recommended for estimation of 25 metabolites from Solanum lycopersicum (L.).     

Effects of elevated ultraviolet radiation and endophytic fungi on plant growth and insect feeding in Lolium perenne, Festuca rubra, F. arundinacea and F. pratensis.

Plants of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), red fescue (Festuca rubra L.), tall fescue (F. arundinacea Schreb.) and meadow fescue (F. pratensis Huds) were exposed at an outdoor facility located in Edinburgh, UK to modulated levels of UV-B radiation (280-315 nm) using banks of cellulose diacetate filtered UV-B fluorescent lamps that also produce UV-A radiation (315-400 nm). The plants were derived from a single clone of each species and were grown both with and without colonization by naturally-occurring fungal endophytes. The UV-B treatment was a 30% elevation above the ambient erythemally-weighted level of UV-B during July to October. Growth of treated plants was compared with plants grown under elevated UV-A radiation alone produced by banks of polyester filtered lamps and with plants grown at ambient levels of solar radiation under banks of unenergized lamps. At the end of the treatment period, sample leaves were collected for feeding trials with the desert locust Schistocerca gregaria (Forsk). The UV-B treatment produced no effects on the aboveground biomass of any of the four grasses. The UV-B treatment and the UV-A control exposure both increased plant height and the number of daughter plants formed by rhizome growth in F. rubra. There were significant effects of endophyte presence on the total fresh and dry weights of F. arundinacea and F. rubra, on fresh weight only in F. pratensis, and on the fresh and dry weights of inflorescence in F. arundinacea and L. perenne. There were no effects of UV treatments on the absolute amounts of leaf consumed or on the feeding preferences of locusts for leaves with or without endophyte in three species: F. rubra, F. arundinacea and L. perenne. In F. pratensis there was no effect of UV treatment on the weight of leaves consumed but a significant UV x endophyte interaction caused by a marked change in feeding preference between leaves with and without endophyte that differed between the UV-B treatment and UV-A control exposures. The alkaloid compounds known as lolines were analysed in leaves of F. pratensis and were only found in plants grown with endophyte. However, there was no significant relationship between total loline content and insect feeding preference. These effects illustrate the potential complexities of species interactions under increasing levels of UV-B. The experiment also demonstrates the importance of appropriate controls in UV lamp supplementation experiments for interpretation of both plant growth and insect feeding effects.     

Effect of Ultraviolet Radiation on Acetylcholinesterase Activity in Freshwater Copepods

We analyzed the effects of UV radiation (UVR) effects on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in two calanoid copepods, Boeckella gibbosa and Parabroteas sarsi that inhabit Patagonian shallow lakes. We studied the effect of experimental UVR (UV-B and UV-A) exposure on AChE activity in relation to basal antioxidant capacities of both copepods. Our experiments showed that UVR can effectively depress AChE activity, although with differences between species. In both copepods AChE was affected by UV-B, whereas UV-A only affected AChE in B. gibbosa. Both copepods also differed in body elemental composition (C:N:P), photoprotecting compound content (carotenoids and mycosporine-like amino acids) and enzymatic antioxidant capacity (glutathione S-transferase [GST]). Our results suggest that when exposed to UVR, AChE activity would depend more on the antioxidant capacity (GST) and P availability for enzyme synthesis than on the photoprotective compounds.     

Simultaneous determination of acetylsalicylic and salicylic acids in human serum and aspirin formulations by second-derivative synchronous fluorescence spectrometry

A second-derivative synchronous scanning spectrofluorimetric method for the simultaneous determination of acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) and salicylic acid (SA) is described. The method is based on the native fluorescence of both acids in a 1% acetic acid-chloroform solution. Both ASA and SA can be determined within the concentration ranges 0.2-70 and 0.03-10 micrograms ml-1, respectively. The effect of each acid on the signal of the other has been studied in detail. Empirical equations have been used to overcome this effect, thus allowing the accurate determination of both acids in binary mixtures, without a separation step. The method has been applied to the determination of ASA and SA in blood serum and to the determination of SA impurities in aspirin formulations. Recoveries from sera spiked with both ASA (2.5-50 micrograms ml-1) and SA (100-160 micrograms ml-1) varied from 99.5 to 106.7% (mean = 102.6%) and from 93.0 to 98.0% (mean = 95.8%), respectively. Recoveries of SA from spiked aspirin solutions (0.25-1.5 mg g-1 of aspirin) varied from 98.0 to 102.0% (mean = 100.3%).     

Raman spectroscopy of hot desert, high altitude epilithic lichens

Twenty-three highly-coloured lichen specimens belonging to the genera Candelariella, Aspicilia and Xanthoria from high altitude sites in the Atacama Desert, Chile, 2300-4500 metres, have been analysed non-destructively by Raman spectroscopy. The vibrational band assignments in the spectra of the specimens, which were still attached to their limestone or sandstone substrata, were accomplished by comparison with the chemical compositions obtained from wet chemical extraction methods. Carotenoids and chlorophyll were found in all specimens as major components and the characteristic spectral signatures of calcium oxalate monohydrate (whewellite) and dihydrate (weddellite) could be identified; chemical signatures were found for these materials even in lichen thalli growing on the non-calcareous substrata, indicating probably that the calcium was provided here from wind- or rain-borne sources. The Raman spectral biomarkers for a variety of protective biomolecules and accessory pigments such as usnic acid, calycin, pulvinic acid dilactone and rhizocarpic acid have been identified in the lichens, in broad agreement with the chemical extraction profiles. The present study indicates that some form of non-destructive taxonomic identification based on Raman spectroscopy was also possible.