Microstructure characteristics of laser-MIG hybrid welded mild steel

To deepen the understanding of laser-arc hybrid welding, the weld shape and microstructure characteristics of laser-metal inert gas hybrid welded mild steel were analyzed. The results showed typical hybrid weld could be classified as two parts: the wide upper zone and the narrow nether zone, which were defined as arc zone and laser zone, respectively. In the hybrid weld, the microstructure, alloy element distribution and microhardness all have evident difference between laser zone and arc zone. The microstructure of arc zone consists of coarse columnar dendrite and fine acicular dendrite between the columnar dendrites, but that of laser zone is composed of fine equiaxed dendrite in weld center and columnar dendrite around the equiaxed dendrite. Compared to arc zone, laser zone has finer grain size, higher microhardness, smaller alloy element content in the fusion zone and narrower heat affected zone. The discussions demonstrated that the observed difference was caused by the difference of temperature gradient, crystallizing and the effects of arc pressure on the molten pool between laser zone and arc zone.     

Effect of welding wires on microstructure and mechanical properties of 2A12 aluminum alloy in CO2 laser-MIG hybrid welding

This paper represented the effect of welding wires on microstructure and mechanical properties of 2A12 aluminum alloy in CO₂ laser-metal inter gas (MIG) hybrid welding. Plates of 2A12 aluminum alloy were welded by ER4043 and ER2319 welding wires, respectively. Full penetration joints without any defects were produced. The X-ray diffraction was used to analyze the phase composition, while the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was conducted to study the microstructure, segregation behaviors of major alloying elements and the eutectics formed at dendrite boundaries in the joints. The results showed that silicon and copper were concentrated at the dendrite boundaries and α-Al + Si + Al₂Cu + Mg₂Si eutectic was formed if the ER4043 welding wire was used. However, only copper was concentrated at the dendrite boundaries and α-Al + θ eutectic was formed by ER2319 welding wire. Finally, the tensile tests were performed and the fracture surfaces were analyzed. The results showed that the joint efficiency by ER2319 and ER4043 welding wires reached up to 78% and 69%, respectively. Coarse dimples and voids had been observed in the fractographs. The joints showed a transgranular type failure.     

Gas protection optimization during Nd:YAG laser welding

Many laser processes, such as welding or surface treatments are associated with an undesired phenomenon, which is oxidation. The solution commonly employed to solve this problem approaches the shielding gas and/or the shielding gas device. What we propose in this paper is a methodology with the goal to optimize the protection gas device design as well as the gas flow in the case of laser welding and surface treatments. The pressure created by the gas flow on the sample surface is recorded and analysed together with the operating parameters influence in order to reach the objectives. The nozzle system designed and presented below assures the protection against material oxidation using minimal gas flow rates and increases the welding penetration in the case of high-power Nd:YAG laser welding.     

An investigation on capability of hybrid Nd:YAG laser-TIG welding technology for AA2198 Al-Li alloy

This paper surveys the capability of the hybrid laser-arc welding in comparison with lone laser welding for AA2198 aluminum alloy experimentally. In the present research, a continuous Nd:YAG laser with a maximum power of 2000 W and a 350 A electric arc were used as two combined welding heat sources. In addition to the lone laser welding experiments, two strategies were examined for hybrid welding; the first one was low laser power (100 W) accompanied by high arc energy, and the second one was high laser power (2000 W) with low arc energy. Welding speed and arc current varied in the experiments. The influence of heat input on weld pool geometry was surveyed. The macrosection, microhardness profile and microstructure of the welded joints were studied and compared. The results indicated that in lone laser welding, conduction mode occurred and keyhole was not formed even in low welding speeds and thus the penetration depth was so low. It was also found that the second approach (high laser power accompanied with low arc energy) is superior to the first one (low laser power accompanied with high arc energy) in hybrid laser-arc welding of Al2198, since lower heat input was needed for full penetration weld and as a result a smaller HAZ was created.     

Characterisation of cw Nd : YAG laser keyhole dynamics

The paper concerns laser–matter interaction characterisation. In this work, we use a rapid CCD camera located coaxially to the laser beam and we compare recorded images with those obtained by numerical modelling. Because images are difficult to understand, we compute thermal radiation emitted by a keyhole of fixed geometry and we adjust it trying to approach the camera record. The modelling treats radiative heat transfer within the keyhole and determines the sensor illumination map. By adjusting the geometrical characteristics of the hole, we seek to obtain the image that corresponds as well as possible to the realised experiment. Results are compared with other experimental methods simultaneously performed plume characterisation with an electric probe and spectrometric analysis. They show the existence of two distinct behaviours of the keyhole: a pseudo-steady state associated with regular and pseudo-constant keyhole shapes, low frequencies of electric current in the plume, and generally good welding results, and a highly dynamic mode associated with irregular and rapidly varying keyhole shapes, high frequencies in the plume current and generally poor welding results.     

Laser welding of glasses using a nanosecond pulsed Nd:YAG laser

This work reports on laser welding of two 1 mm thickness borosilicate glasses through the irradiation with a nanosecond pulsed laser, as a novel alternative to the use of ultrashort pulsed lasers for welding of transparent materials. Two different methodologies were investigated and compared in terms of interface quality. In a first approach, the glasses were joined without any absorbing intermediate layer. However, the bond interface possesses defects. To improve the resulting bond interface, the use of a titanium ultrathin intermediate layer was proposed to weld the glasses substrates, acting as a sealant between them. The laser parameters were optimized to achieve the best joining conditions of the Ti film. The use of the Ti layer gives rise to a bond interface more homogeneous and free of damages. As a further step, thin glasses of 86 µm thickness, of great technological value, were joined through the Ti film as well. The joined interfaces were inspected through optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) while the bond quality was evaluated by Scanning Acoustic Microscopy (SAM).     

Pulsed Nd:YAG laser welding of AISI 304 to AISI 420 stainless steels

The technique to weld AISI 304 stainless steel to AISI 420 stainless steel with a pulsed Nd:YAG laser has been investigated. The main objective of this study was to determine the influence of the laser beam position, with respect to the joint, on weld characteristics. Specimens were welded with the laser beam incident on the joint and moved 0.1 and 0.2 mm on either side of the joint. The joints were examined in an optical microscope for cracks, pores and to determine the weld geometry. The microstructure of the weld and the heat affected zones were observed in a scanning electron microscope. An energy dispersive spectrometer, coupled to the scanning electron microscope, was used to determine variations in (weight %) the main chemical elements across the fillet weld. Vickers microhardness testing and tensile testing were carried out to determine the mechanical properties of the weld. The results of the various tests and examinations enabled definition of the best position for the incident laser beam with respect to the joint, for welding together the two stainless steels.     

The influence of shielding gas in hybrid LASER-MIG welding

Hybrid LASER-GMAW welding technique has been recently studied and developed in order to meet the needs of modern welding industries. The two sources involved in this process play, in fact, a complementary role: fast welding speed, deep bead penetration and high energy concentration can be achieved through the LASER beam, while gap bridgeability and cost-effectiveness are typical of the GMAW process.Particularly interesting, in this context, is the CO₂ LASER-MIG welding which differs from the Nd:YAG LASER-MIG technique for the high powers that can be exploited and for the good power/cost ratio of the process.This paper is a part of a wide study on the hybrid CO₂ LASER-MIG welding and investigates the influence of the shielding gas both on the stability of the process and on the dimensional characteristics of the weld bead. Two different parameters have been taken into consideration in order to develop this analysis: the shielding gas composition and the shielding gas flow.The experiment, performed on AISI 304 stainless steel plates, has been planned exploiting design of experiment techniques. The results have been analyzed through a statistical approach in order to determine the real influence of each parameter on the overall process.     

Accuracy control of three-dimensional Nd:YAG laser shaping by ablation

Improving the dimensional accuracy along the optical axis without decreasing the materials removing rate is a key issue in three-dimensional laser shaping. This paper presents a concept for performing three-dimensional laser shaping by directly using machining laser as the photo source of the non-contacting measuring device. Due to the high power measuring photo source and a 1.06 μm bandpass filter, the interference caused by the emission light of ablated surface can be effectively avoided, the delay time is not needed to be inserted between the laser pulse and the measurement. So the measurement will not decrease the material removal rate and productivity. By using this system, the shaping accuracy of 30 μm can be achieved at the removing rate of about 4.0×10⁻² mm³/sec for Si₃N₄ ceramic, both are much better than the results obtained before.     

Spectroscopic characterization of low-nickel copper welding with pulsed Nd:YAG laser

Effects of various operating parameters of 400 W pulsed Nd:YAG laser on welding of nickel-alloyed copper have been investigated. The induced plume spectra in case of using different assist gases and preheat temperatures have been analyzed and the effects of these key factors on melt features such as penetration depth, porosity and spattering have been attributed to the spectroscopic behavior of the plume. Moreover, the CuI electron temperature and its standard deviation as the spectroscopic responses of the plasma plume to various laser process parameters have been quantitatively evaluated at different average and peak powers and pulse energies. Also, the mentioned responses were utilized to justify the weld bead profile features, involving weld depth, width and their stabilities, at similar process parameters. The operating conditions of welding were optimized, regarding the results of spectroscopic observations and attributing them to the qualitative aspects of the melt pool.     

Effects of heat input on the low power Nd:YAG pulse laser conduction weldability of magnesium alloy AZ61

The effects of heat input on the low power Nd:YAG pulse laser conduction weldability of magnesium alloy AZ61 plates were investigated. The results show that for a hot-extruded AZ61 magnesium alloy plate laser conduction welding, the penetration depth and area of welds cross-section increased with an increase of the heat input. The microstructure of a band zone, which is located in the fusion zone (FZ) and close to the fusion boundary, evolved with an increase of the heat input. Moreover, an increase of the heat input increased the tendency of the formation of solidification cracking and liquation cracking. The porosities and average diameters of pores increased with an increase of the heat input but reduced sharply when a relatively large heat input was achieved. In addition, the degree of formation of craters increased linearly with an increase of the heat input.     

Micromachining of copper using Nd:YAG laser radiation at 1064, 532, and 355 nm wavelengths

The interaction phenomena of nanosecond time period Q-switched diode-pumped Nd:YAG laser pulses using 1064, 532 and 355 nm with 0.25 mm thick pure-copper foil was investigated at an incident laser intensity range of 0.5–57.9 GW/cm². For each sample, etch rate and surface structure were determined. Analysis of the results of the tests included scanning electron microscopy (SEM). A maximum etch rate of 13.3 μm per pulse was obtained for the etch rate tests carried out at 532 nm. The maximum etch rate obtainable for 1064 nm was 2.21 μm per pulse, and for 355 nm, 6.68 μm per pulse. The dramatic decrease in etch rate observed when processing at 1064 nm is thought to occur due the highly reflective nature of copper as the interaction wavelength is increased, plus the nature of the plasma formed above the material during the high-intensity laser–material interaction. This plasma then imparts energy to the surface of the processed area leading to surface melting of the area surrounding the hole as can be seen by the SEM photographs.     

Experimental study on reflection of high-intensity nanosecond Nd:YAG laser pulses in ablation of metals

The total reflectivity of tin and magnesium in ablation by nanosecond Nd:YAG laser pulses in air is studied. It was found that the high initial reflectivity of the studied metals undergoes a significant drop to values of 0.11 for Sn and 0.16 for Mg within a laser fluence range between about 0.8 and 11 J/cm². These reduced reflectivity values remain virtually unchanged with further increasing laser fluence. This study shows that a significant reflectivity decrease of the studied metals is caused by plasma formation in front of the irradiated surface. Below the plasma formation threshold, the reflectivity of the studied metals is observed to be virtually independent of laser fluence, indicating a small role of Drude׳s temperature effect on the reflectivity of the studied samples.     

Frequency-tripled Nd:YAG laser ablation in laser structuring process

With the increasing demand for finer lines/spaces on PCB boards, a new technology—laser structuring—has emerged in recent years. In this research, the frequency-tripled Nd:YAG laser is selected as the laser source in laser structuring; this laser is often used in miniaturization machining. This paper describes in detail the processing parameters’ influences, such as laser power, numbers of repetition, repetition rate and bite size, on laser structuring results. From the research results, it can be concluded that the line width and depth are increased with increases in the laser power and numbers of repetition. Repetition rate, bite size and velocity are related to one another. When the bite size is fixed, the velocity increases with the repetition rate and the depth of the line is decreased at the same time. When the repetition rate is fixed, velocity increases with the bite size.     

对撞脉冲锁模Nd:YAG激光器线宽的研究

本文报道了同时采用Fabry-Perot标准具和光栅监测对撞脉冲锁模Nd:YAG激光器输出线宽的初步结果,通过改变泵浦能量获得0.11nm～0.25nm的激光线宽,表明了自相关调制在锁模激光脉冲线宽展宽中起着重要的作用;并对一些相关实验进行了观测。     

Modelling of a Nd:YAG laser Q-switched by a scanning interferometric mirror

We have modelled a continuously pumped Nd:YAG actively Q-switched by a variable interferometric mirror made up of a scanning Michelson or Fabry-Pérot mirror. We have characterised the three-mirror laser dynamics by using a bifurcation diagram constructed from the plot of peak power-enhancement factor as a function of mirror speed. One observes different chaotic windows separated by period-doubling bifurcations, and stable periodic regime. It is demonstrated that the best performance of the Q-switched laser is obtained rather for low than for high mirror speed (pulse width of 20 ns, and high peak power up to 400 times greater than the continuous emission).     

高功率二极管泵浦激光模块技术研究

 开展了二极管泵浦棒状Nd:YAG激光模块技术研究，在数值模拟激光模块增益分布的基础上对耦合结构进行了优化，初步研制出了高增益振荡级激光模块及高储能放大激光模块。实验结果表明，振荡级激光模块泵浦均匀且增益较高，TEM₀₀模输出情况下单脉冲能量为11.8mJ, 光-光效率为 15%；放大模块在500Hz重复频率下获得了单脉冲400mJ的储能。     

Dissimilar autogenous full penetration welding of superalloy K418 and 42CrMo steel by a high power CW Nd:YAG laser

Experiments of autogenous laser full penetration welding between dissimilar cast Ni-based superalloy K418 and alloy steel 42CrMo flat plates with 3.5 mm thickness were conducted using a 3 kW continuous wave (CW) Nd:YAG laser. The influences of laser welding velocity, flow rate of side-blow shielding gas, defocusing distance were investigated. Microstructure of the welded seam was characterized by optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) and energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS). Mechanical properties of the welded seam were evaluated by microhardness and tensile strength testing. Results show that high quality full penetration laser-welded joint can be obtained by optimizing the welding velocity, flow rate of shielding gas and defocusing distance. The laser-welded seam have non-equilibrium solidified microstructures consisting of γ-FeCr_0.29Ni_0.16C_0.06 austenite solid solution dendrites as the dominant and very small amount of super-fine dispersed Ni₃Al γ′ phase and Laves particles as well as MC needle-like carbides distributed in the interdendritic regions. Although the microhardness of the laser-welded seam was lower than that of the base metal, the strength of the joint was equal to that of the base metal and the fracture mechanism showed fine ductility.     

A hybrid OPCPA/Nd:phosphate glass multi-terawatt laser system for seeding of a petawatt laser

To enhance radiographic abilities on its Z-Accelerator, Sandia National Laboratories is incorporating a petawatt laser system into the existing Z-Backlighter laser facility. As part of this work, a short-pulse laser has been constructed to seed the larger Beamlet type Nd:phosphate glass slab amplifiers. This seed laser consists of an optical parametric chirped pulse amplification (OPCPA) system joined to a Nd:phosphate glass rod amplifier system in order to achieve multi-Joule sub-picosecond operation. The rod amplifier system has been modeled using the Miró code which shows good agreement with the experimental results. This system can achieve focal intensities up to 10¹⁸ W/cm² at a repetition rate of once every 20 min and has been applied to produce k-alpha X-rays in copper.     

Numerical analysis of hybrid plasma generated by Nd:YAG laser and gas tungsten arc

When the output from a high power Nd:YAG laser irradiates a metallic surface, metal vapor is generated and changes into the plasma state, which is called a laser-induced plasma plume. If the high power laser is combined with an arc plasma, they mutually attract and influence each other. In this study, several analytic steps are introduced to analyze the laser-arc hybrid welding plasma. A conduction equation is first solved to obtain the temperature distribution on the metallic surface. Next, an analysis of the metal vapor is conducted to investigate the Ar–Fe mixture using a numerical method. As a result of the analysis, it is revealed that the plasma is concentrated in the vicinity of the laser-irradiation position and that the local temperature of the plasma is increased. Plasma flow and current density profiles are also affected by the laser irradiation.